Optional
Botany
UPSC Civil Services Mains, optional subject
Syllabus
Paper I
Microbiology and Plant Pathology
- Structure and reproduction/multiplication of viruses, viroids, bacteria, fungi and mycoplasma
- Applications of microbiology in agriculture, industry, medicine and in control of soil and water pollution
- Prion and Prion hypothesis.
- Important crop diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, mycoplasma, fungi and nematodes
- Modes of infection and dissemination
- Molecular basis of infection and disease resistance/defence
- Physiology of parasitism and control measures.
- Fungal toxins.
- Modelling and disease forecasting
- Plant quarantine.
Cryptogams
- Algae, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, pteridophytes-structure and reproduction from evolutionary viewpoint
- Distribution of Cryptogams in India and their ecological and economic importance.
Phanerogams
- Gymnosperms
- Concept of Progymnosperms.
- Classification and distribution of gymnosperms.
- Salient features of Cycadales, Ginkgoales, Coniferales and Gnetales, their structure and reproduction.
- General account of Cycadofilicales, Bennettitales and Cordiaitailes
- Geological time scale
- Type of fossils and their study techniques.
- AngiospermsSystematics, anatomy, embryology, palynology and phylogency.
- Taxonomic hierarchy
- International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
- Numerical taxonomy and chemotaxonomy
- Evidence from anatomy, embryology and palynology.
- Origin and evolution of angiosperms
- Comparative account of various systems of classification of angiosperms
- Study of angiospermic families— Magnoliaceae, Ranunculaceae, Brassicaceae, Rosaceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Apiaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Verbenaceae, Solanaceae, Rubiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Arecaceae, Liliaceae, Musaceae and Orchidaceae.
- Stomata and their types
- Glandular and non-glandular trichomes
- Unusual secondary growth
- Anatomy of C3 and C4 plants
- Xylem and phloem differentiation
- Wood anatomy.
- Development of male and female gametophytes, pollination, fertilization
- Endosperm—its development and function.
- Patterns of embryo development
- Polyembroyony, apomixes
- Applications of palynology
- Experimental embryology including pollen storage and test-tube fertilization.
Plant Resource Development
- Domestication and introduction of plants
- Origin of cultivated plants, Vavilov’s centres of origin.
- Plants as sources for food, fodder, fibres, spices, beverages, edible oils, drugs, narcotics, insecticides, timber, gums, resins and dyes
- latex, cellulose, starch and its products
- Perfumery
- Importance of Ethnobotany in Indian context
- Energy plantations
- Botanical Gardens and Herbaria.
Morphogenesis
- Totipotency, polarity, symmetry and differentiation
- Cell, tissue, organ and protoplast culture.
- Somatic hybrids and Cybrids
- Micropropagation
- Somaclonal variation and its applications
- Pollen haploids, embryo rescue methods and their applications.
Paper II
Cell Biology
- Techniques of cell biology.
- Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells—structural and ultrastructural details
- Structure and function of extracellular matrix (cell wall) and membranes-cell adhesion, membrane transport and vesicular transport
- Structure and function of cell organelles (chloroplasts, mitochondria, ER, dictyosomes ribosomes, endosomes,lysosomes, peroxisomes; Cytoskelaton and microtubules; Nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear pore complex; Chromatin and nucleosome; Cell signalling and cell receptors; Signal transduction Mitosis and meiosis; molecular basis of cell cycle.
- Numerical and structural variations in chromosomes and their significance
- Chromatin organization and packaging of genome
- Polytene chromosomes
- B-chromosomes—structure, behaviour and significance.
Genetics, Molecular Biology and Evolution
- Development of genetics, and gene versus allele concepts (Pseudoalleles)
- Quantitative genetics and multiple factors
- Incomplete dominance, polygenic inheritance, multiple alleles
- Linkage and crossing over of gene mapping including molecular maps (idea of mapping, function)
- Sex chromosomes and sex-linked inheritance
- sex determination and molecular basis of sex differentiation
- Mutations (biochemical and molecular basis)
- Cytoplasmic inheritance and cytoplasmic genes (including genetics of male sterility).
- Structure and synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins
- Genetic code and regulation of gene expression
- Gene silencing
- Multigene families
- Organic evolution-evidences, mechanism and theories.
- Role of RNA in origin and evolution.
Plant Breeding, Biotechnology and Biostatistics
- Methods of plant breeding—introduction, selection and hybridization (pedigree, backcross, mass selection, bulk method)
- Mutation, polyploidy, male sterility and heterosis breeding.
- Use of apomixes in plant breeding
- DNA sequencing
- Genetic engineering—methods of transfer of genes
- Transgenic crops and biosafety aspects
- Development and use of molecular markers in plant breeding
- Tools and techniques—probe, southern blotting, DNA fingerprinting, PCR and FISH. Standard deviation and coefficient of variation (CV). Tests of significance (Z-test, t-test and chi-square tests).
- Probability and distributions (normal, binomial and Poisson).
- Correlation and regression.
Physiology and Biochemistry
- Water relations, mineral nutrition and ion transport, mineral deficiencies.
- Photosynthesis—photochemical reactions, photophosphorylation and carbon fixation pathways
- C3, C4 and CAM pathways
- Mechanism of phloem transport, Respiration (anaerobic and aerobic, including fermentation)—electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
- Photorespiration
- Chemiosmotic theory and ATP synthesis
- Lipid metabolism
- Nitrogen fixation and nitrogen metabolism.
- Enzymes, coenzymes
- Energy transfer and energy conservation.
- Importance of secondary metabolites.
- Pigments as photoreceptors (plastidial pigments and phytochrome).
- Plant movements
- Photoperiodism and flowering, vernalization, senescence
- Growth substances—their chemical nature, role and applications in agri-horticulture
- growth indices, growth movements.
- Stress physiology (heat, water, salinity, metal)
- Fruit and seed physiology.
- Dormancy, storage and germination of seed.
- Fruit ripening—its molecular basis and manipulation.
Ecology and Plant Geography
- Concept of ecosystem
- Ecological factors.
- Concepts and dynamics of community
- Plant succession.
- Concepts of biosphere
- Ecosystems
- Conservation
- Pollution and its control (including phytoremediation)
- Plant indicators
- Environment (Protection) Act.
- Forest types of India—‘Ecological and economic importance of forests, afforestation, deforestation and social forestry
- Endangered plants, endemism IUCN categories, Red Data Books
- Biodiversity and its conservation
- Protected Area Network
- Convention of Biological Diversity, Farmers’ Rights
- and Intellectual Property Rights
- Concept of Sustainable Development
- Biogeochemical cycles.
- Global warming and climatic change
- Invasive species
- Environmental Impact Assessment
- Phytogeographical regions of India.
Syllabus as published by UPSC in the Civil Services Examination 2026 notification.