Free resources
हिन्दी — Read in HindiAncient and medieval India
The history atlas: every theme on one timeline, each with a map of where it happened, its sources, the people and terms to know, the debates Mains asks about, and the questions UPSC has set on it.
The timeline
Themes that shared the same centuries sit one above the other. Open a coloured band to read the theme; a pale dashed band is still to come. Dates place the bands and are approximate.
The scale is indicative, not to measure. Later periods cover fewer years but we know far more about them, so they are deliberately stretched; earlier periods are compressed.
Political and material history
Religion, thought and culture
All themes
- 1Prehistoryabout 2 million years ago to 1000 BCE
- 2Harappan civilisation3300 to 1300 BCE
- 3Vedic age1500 to 600 BCE
- 4Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation600 to 300 BCE
- 5Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha6th century BCE to 321 BCE
- 6Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments6th century BCE onward
- 7Mauryan empire324 or 321 to 187 BCE
- 8India from 200 BCE to 300 CE200 BCE to 300 CE; 4 parts: 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela; 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western Satraps; 8c: The Satavahanas; 8d: The Sangam age
- 9Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline5th century BCE to 13th century CE
- 10The Gupta empire319 to 550 CE
- 11Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas250 to 600 CE; the Western Gangas run on to 1000
- 12Early medieval India550 to 1200 CE; 6 parts: 12a: Understanding early medieval India; 12b: North India: Harsha, Palas, Pratiharas; 12c: The Rajput kingdoms; 12d: The Deccan: Chalukyas to Yadavas; 12e: South India: Pallavas, Pandyas, Cholas; 12f: Bhakti in the south and beyond
- M1What "medieval India" means700 to 1707 CE
- M2The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion711 to 1186 CE
- M3The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms1150 to 1210 CE
- M4South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas1070 to 1323 CE
- M5The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 15261206 to 1526 CE
- M7Regional kingdoms and their legacy1339 to 1826 CE
- M6Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis1336 to 1646 CE
- M8The Mughal empire1526 to 1739 CE; 2 parts: M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperors; M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
- M9The Bhakti and Sufi movements1200 to 1700 CE
People
Abdul Ghafurmerchant
Of Surat; owned a fleet.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Abdur Razzaqambassador
Persian envoy at Vijayanagara under Devaraya II, about 1442 to 1444 CE; the Matla us Sadain describes the city and the Mahanavami festival.
Theme M1: What "medieval India" meansTheme M6: Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis
Abdus Samadpainter
A Persian master Humayun recruited, titled Shirin Qalam, the sweet pen.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
AbhinandananathaTirthankara
The fourth Tirthankara.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Abhinavaguptaphilosopher
Kashmiri, about 950 to 1020 CE; systematised Trika; the Tantraloka and the Abhinavabharati.
Abu Bakrcaliph
The first Rashidun caliph, 632 to 634 CE, chosen by the community after the Prophet Muhammad's death.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Abul Fazlhistorian
Akbar's devoted courtier; wrote the Akbarnama and the Ain i Akbari in the 1590s, a hagiographic account.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and cultureTheme M1: What "medieval India" means
Abul Hasanpainter
Jahangir's Nadir uz Zaman; painted Jahangir embracing Shah Abbas.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Achyuta Deva Rayaemperor
Tuluva, r. 1529 to 1542 CE; Nuniz wrote at his court; his death in 1542 did not end the Tuluva line.
Aditya Iking
About 871 to 907 CE; killed Aparajita, ending the Pallavas.
Agnimitraking
Son of Pushyamitra, who administered from Vidisha; subject of Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Ahmad Shah Isultan
Gujarat, r. 1411 to 1442 CE; founded Ahmedabad on the Sabarmati in 1411 and built the Bhadra Fort, Jama Masjid and Teen Darwaza.
Ahmad Shah I Walisultan
Bahmani, r. 1422 to 1436 CE; moved the capital to Bidar, annexed Warangal, and is venerated as a saint at Ashtur.
Ajatashatruking
Of Magadha; supported the First Council.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Ajayarajaking
Chahamana who founded Ajayameru, Ajmer, early in the twelfth century.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Ajita Kesakambaliphilosopher
Sixth century BCE contemporary of the Buddha and a major forerunner of the Charvaka tradition.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
AjitanathaTirthankara
The second Tirthankara.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Akbaremperor
Mughal, 1556 to 1605 CE; Sulh i Kul, the jizya abolished, Rajput marriages, Hindus in the highest posts, the Din i Ilahi.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and cultureTheme M1: What "medieval India" means
Al Birunischolar
Author of the Kitab ul Hind, about 1017 to 1030 CE.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme M1: What "medieval India" meansTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
Al Masudigeographer
Arab geographer, about 943 CE.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
Al Mutasimcaliph
Abbasid caliph who built a Turkish guard and a new capital at Samarra in 836 CE.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Ala ud din Khaljiking
Captured Devagiri in 1296.
Theme 12d: The Deccan: Chalukyas to YadavasTheme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526
Alara Kalamateacher
A teacher under whom the Buddha first studied.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shahsultan
Founder of the Bahmani sultanate at Gulbarga on 3 August 1347 CE, r. to 1358; divided it into four tarafs.
Alauddin Husainking
Ghurid, about 1149 to 1161 CE; called Jahan suz, the world burner, for burning Ghazni about 1150 in revenge.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Alauddin Hussain Shahsultan
Bengal, r. 1494 to 1519 CE; the golden age; conquered Kamata and Kamrup; Bengali at court; Rupa and Sanatana were his ministers.
Alexander Cunninghamarchaeologist
An early figure in Indian archaeology and the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India; noticed Harappa in the 19th century, though its significance was not then understood.
Alexander III of Macedonking
Alexander the Great, 336 to 323 BCE, Sikander in Persian accounts; he overturned the Persian Empire and entered the Indian northwest in 327 to 326 BCE.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Alha and Udallegend
The heroes of the bardic Alha Khand, which remembers Prithviraj III's war on the Chandellas of Mahoba.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Alicaliph
The fourth Rashidun caliph, 656 to 661 CE, the Prophet Muhammad's cousin and son in law; fought at the Camel and Siffin; killed by a Kharijite.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Ali Mardanofficer
Bakhtiyar's officer, who killed him at Devkot in 1206, Minhaj says.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Allasani Peddanapoet
The Andhra Kavita Pitamaha, foremost of the Ashtadiggajas; the Manucharitamu, the first great Telugu prabandha.
Alptiginking
Turkish ghulam of the Samanids who seized Ghazni in 962 to 963 CE; died 963.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Ambadevageneral
The Yadava general against whom Rudrama Devi died in battle, about 1289 CE.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Ambhiking
Ruler of Taxila who did not fight Alexander but welcomed him with troops and elephants, hoping for support against Porus.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Amir Hasan Sijzipoet
Khusrau's contemporary, who wrote Persian verse and the Fawaid ul Fuad, the conversations of Nizamuddin Auliya.
Amir Khusraupoet
1253 to 1325 CE; born at Patiyali, served five courts, wrote in Persian and Hindavi; credited with the khayal, tarana and sitar; Nizamuddin's disciple.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M1: What "medieval India" means
Amoghavarsha Iking
About 814 to 878 CE; wrote the Kavirajamarga; a devoted Jain.
Anandadisciple
A major disciple of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developmentsTheme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Anandapalaking
Hindu Shahi king, Jayapala's son; his coalition broke at Waihind in 1008 CE when his elephant fled.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Anangapala Tomaraking
Tomara king of Delhi, remembered as the builder of Lal Kot.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Andalsaint
The only woman Alvar, 8th century; the Thiruppavai and the Nachiyar Thirumozhi.
Andre Winkhistorian
Argued that fitna, revolt, was a normal mode of Indian sovereignty, not collapse.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Antiochusking
King of Syria, who sent an ambassador to Bindusara's court and refused to sell him a sophist.
Aparajitaking
The last Pallava, about 876 to 897 CE; killed by Aditya I.
Apparsaint
The Nayanmar under whose influence Mahendravarman I turned Shaiva.
Arikesari Maravarmanking
The most important early medieval Pandya, about 670 to 710 CE.
Arnorajaking
Chahamana, about 1135 to 1150 CE; defeated a Turkish force near Ajmer; the Prithviraja Vijaya ties the Ana Sagar lake to it.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Arunashvaofficial
Harsha's minister who seized power briefly after his death.
Aryabhatamathematician
Born 476 CE; wrote the Aryabhatiya at Kusumapura in 499 CE.
Aryadevaphilosopher
Nagarjuna's disciple in Madhyamaka.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Asangaphilosopher
About 315 to 390 CE; a founder of Yogacara; the Yogacarabhumi.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 10: The Gupta empire
Ashokaking
About 268 to 232 BCE; the Third Council and the nine missions; made Buddhism a pan Asian religion.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 7: Mauryan empire
Ashvaghoshapoet
Sanskrit poet at Kanishka's court; the Buddhacharita, the earliest major Sanskrit Buddhist literary work.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western Satraps
Athanasius Nikitintraveller
Russian merchant of Tver in India about 1469 to 1472 CE; described the Bahmanis at Bidar, not Vijayanagara.
Atisha Dipankaramonk
About 980 to 1054 CE; Bengali monk of Vikramashila; revived Buddhism in Tibet; founded the Kadampa tradition.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 12b: North India: Harsha, Palas, Pratiharas
Aurangzebemperor
r. 1658 to 1707 CE; reimposed the jizya, annexed Bijapur and Golconda, spent 26 years in the Deccan; buried at Khuldabad.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Avvaiyarpoet
The most celebrated woman poet of the Sangam age, in both the Akananuru and the Purananuru; also linked with later didactic Tamil literature.
Azam Shahprince
Aurangzeb's son; built Bibi ka Maqbara at Aurangabad, 1660 to 1661 CE, for his mother.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Azes Iking
A Shaka ruler whom some historians connect with the Vikrama Samvat of 58 BCE.
B. B. Lalarchaeologist
Among the Indian archaeologists who worked on the civilisation after independence.
B. D. Chattopadhyayahistorian
Among the critics of the feudalism thesis.
B. K. Thapararchaeologist
Among the Indian archaeologists who worked on the civilisation after independence.
Baburking
Timurid ruler of Kabul; with about 12,000 troops and field artillery he defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526 CE.
Theme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperors
Badaunihistorian
A conservative Muslim unhappy with Akbar's religious policy; wrote the Muntakhab ut Tawarikh in secret, a hostile witness.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M1: What "medieval India" means
Bahadur Shah of Gujaratsultan
r. 1526 to 1537 CE; took Mandu and Chittor, ceded Bassein in 1534 and Diu in 1535, and was killed by the Portuguese off Diu in 1537.
Bahauddin Zakariyasaint
1182 to 1262; founded the Suhrawardi order in India at Multan; politically useful to Iltutmish.
Bahlul Lodisultan
r. 1451 to 1489 CE; Afghan founder of the Lodis, who defeated the Sharqis of Jaunpur and ruled as first among equals.
Bahram Shahsultan
Ghaznavid, 1117 to 1157 CE, a Seljuk dependant; quarrelled with the princes of Ghor and had one of them killed.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Bairam Khanregent
Khan i Khanan; won Sirhind for Humayun in 1555 and was Akbar's regent from 1556 to 1560.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Bakhtiyar Khiljicommander
Destroyed Nalanda about 1193 and Vikramashila about 1203.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Balbansultan
Ilbari, r. 1266 to 1287 CE; destroyed the Forty, taught Zil i Ilahi with sijda and paibos, cleared the Doab and ran the barid.
Banabhattapoet
Harsha's court poet; author of the Harshacharita and the Kadambari.
Basavannasaint
About 1131 to 1167 CE; minister to Bijjala II at Kalyana; founder of the Veerashaiva movement.
Basawanpainter
Akbar's master of modelling and light and shade, the first to absorb European chiaroscuro.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Baz Bahadursultan
Malwa, r. 1555 to 1562 CE; the last sultan, remembered with Rani Roopmati; Akbar took Malwa in 1561.
Bega Begumpatron
Humayun's widow; built Humayun's tomb in Delhi, 1565 to 1572 CE, with Mirak Mirza Ghiyas.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Bhadrabahumonk
4th to 3rd century BCE; led the migration to Karnataka; credited with the Kalpasutra.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 7: Mauryan empire
Bhartriharipoet
Author of the three Shatakas and the Vakyapadiya on the philosophy of language.
Bhasapoet
Dramatist whose plays, including the Svapnavasavadatta, were rediscovered in 1912.
Bhaskara IImathematician
1114 to 1185 CE; born at Bijapur; the Siddhantashiromani; the chakravala method.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Bhima Iking
Solanki king when Mahmud of Ghazni sacked Somnath in 1025; the Modhera Sun temple is of his reign.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Bhima IIking
Chaulukya king in whose minority Naiki Devi ruled; Aibak took Anhilwara in 1197.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Bhojaking
Paramara, about 1010 to 1055 CE; wrote the Samarangana Sutradhara and the Rajamartanda; founded the Bhojashala.
Bhumakaking
Founder of the Kshaharata dynasty of the Western Satraps.
Bichitrpainter
Painted Jahangir preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings, and worked on the Padshahnama album.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Bijjala IIking
Kalachuri king at Kalyana, whom Basavanna served.
Bilhanapoet
Author of the Vikramankadevacharita, on the Western Chalukya Vikramaditya VI.
Theme 12c: The Rajput kingdomsTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
Bimbisaraking
Donated the Veluvana, the Bamboo Grove, at Rajagriha.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Bindusaraking
Son of Chandragupta, 297 to 273 BCE; Amitrochates to the Greeks, from Amitraghata, slayer of foes.
Birbalcourtier
A Hindu at Akbar's court, one sign of how integrated the Mughal administration was.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M1: What "medieval India" means
Bishandaspainter
Sent to the Safavid court; Jahangir called him unequalled at a likeness.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Brihadrathaking
The last Mauryan king, assassinated in 187 BCE by his general Pushyamitra Shunga.
Brihaspatiphilosopher
Traditionally revered as the founder of the Charvaka or Lokayata school.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Buddhaghosamonk
5th century; the great Theravada commentator; the Visuddhimagga, written in Sri Lanka.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Budhaguptaking
The last Gupta with wide authority; his Garuda pillar at Eran is dated 484 CE.
C. A. Baylyhistorian
Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars, 1983; merchants and qasbas prospering in the eighteenth century.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Cambyses IIking
An Achaemenid ruler of Persia.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Chachking
Brahmin minister who took the throne of Sindh from the Rai dynasty in the 630s CE; Dahir's father.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Chaitanyasaint
1486 to 1533 or 1534; born at Nabadwip, settled at Puri; founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism and its sankirtana, who wrote almost nothing.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M7: Regional kingdoms and their legacy
Chakrapalitaofficial
Son of the governor Parnadatta; repaired the Sudarshana lake embankment at his own expense in 457 to 458 CE.
Chamundarayaofficial
Commissioned the Gommateshvara, about 981 CE.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Chanakyascholar
Adviser of Chandragupta, traditionally the author of the Arthashastra.
Theme 7: Mauryan empireTheme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Chand Bardaipoet
Bard of the Prithviraj Raso, 12th century, debated.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdomsTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
Chand Bibiregent
Regent and defender of Ahmadnagar against Akbar in 1595; ceded Berar in 1596; killed by her own men in 1600.
Chandradevaking
Founded the Gahadavala dynasty about 1080 CE, taking Varanasi and the eastern Gangetic plain.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Chandragupta Iking
About 319 to 335 CE; took the title Maharajadhiraja and married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi; the Gupta Era counts from 319 to 320.
Chandragupta IIking
Vikramaditya, about 375 to 415 CE; conquered the Western Satraps about 409; the Naga and Vakataka marriages; Fa Hien visited in his reign.
Chandragupta Mauryaking
Founder of the Mauryan empire, 324 or 321 to 297 BCE; ended Nanda rule, made the treaty with Seleucus, and in Jain tradition ended his life at Shravanabelagola.
Theme 7: Mauryan empireTheme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Chandrakirtiphilosopher
The later systematiser of Madhyamaka.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Chandravarmanking
Legendary founder of the Chandellas, son of Hemavati and the Moon god.
Charakaphysician
Named for the Charaka Samhita, dated to roughly 100 BCE to 200 CE; Charaka the person cannot be securely dated.
Charvakaphilosopher
A disciple of Brihaspati, or the philosopher who systematically set out the school's ideas.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Chellanaqueen
A Licchavi princess, wife of Bimbisara and mother of Ajatashatru.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Chetakachief
Head of the Licchavi clan ruling from Vaishali, and brother of Trishala.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Chokhamelasaint
A mahar, the Varkari tradition's most important untouchable saint, whose samadhi stands at the threshold of the Pandharpur temple.
Cyrus IIking
Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
D. D. Kosambihistorian
Among the critics of a transplanted European model of feudalism.
Dadu Dayalsaint
1544 to 1603; a cotton carder born at Ahmedabad who founded the Dadupanth in Rajasthan.
Dahirking
Chach's son, king of Sindh from about 695 CE; killed in battle at Rawar in 712.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Dandinpoet
Sixth century poet who describes Harishena as powerful, truthful and bountiful.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Dantidurgaking
About 735 to 756 CE; founder of the Rashtrakutas; the Hiranyagarbha at Ujjain.
Dara Shukohprince
Shah Jahan's eldest son; wrote the Majma ul Bahrain and the Sirr i Akbar; lost at Samugarh and was executed in 1659.
Darius Iking
Achaemenid ruler under whom Gandhara and the Indian borderlands entered the empire; defeated at Marathon in 490 BCE.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Daswantpainter
Son of a palanquin bearer, ranked first of Akbar's painters by Abul Fazl; died in 1584 CE.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Daulat Khan Lodigovernor
Ibrahim Lodi's governor of Punjab, who invited Babur to invade.
Daya Ram Sahniarchaeologist
Credited with the excavation of Harappa in 1921, a major turning point.
Demetrius Iking
Led the first major Greek push into northwestern India, about 200 to 180 BCE.
Deva Raya Iking
Sangama, r. 1406 to 1422 CE; the Tungabhadra dam and aqueduct, Conti's visit, and victory over Firuz Shah Bahmani at Pangal in 1419 to 1420.
Deva Raya IIking
Sangama, r. 1423 to 1446 CE; the greatest of his line, Gajabetekara; recruited Muslim archers; Abdur Razzaq visited in 1443.
Devabhutiking
The last Shunga king, assassinated by his minister Vasudeva Kanva about 73 BCE.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Devaguptaking
Of Malwa; killed Rajyavardhana, allied with Shashanka.
Devapalaking
About 810 to 850 CE; campaigns in Assam and Orissa; corresponded with the Sailendra king.
Devardhigani Kshamashramanamonk
Led the second session at Vallabhi, where the Shvetambara Agamas were written down.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 10: The Gupta empire
Dhana Nandaking
Nanda ruler with a very large army and oppressive taxes, defeated by Chandragupta Maurya.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Dhangaking
Chandella, about 950 to 1008 CE; temple builder; fought off Mahmud of Ghazni's raids.
Dhanvantariphysician
Named among the Navaratna; a traditional rather than a documented figure.
Dharmakirtiphilosopher
About 600 to 660 CE; extended Dignaga in the Pramanavarttika.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Dharmapalaking
Pala; founded Vikramashila and built Somapura.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 12b: North India: Harsha, Palas, Pratiharas
Dharmasvaminmonk
Tibetan monk at Nalanda in 1234 to 1236, who found it in ruins with a handful of monks still teaching.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Dharna Shahmerchant
Built the Ranakpur temple in 1446.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Dhruvaking
Rashtrakuta who defeated both Vatsaraja and Dharmapala.
Dhruvadeviqueen
The queen whom, in the Devichandraguptam, Ramagupta agrees to surrender, and whom Chandragupta later marries.
Dhundibhissaramissionary
Named in the Mahavamsa among Ashoka's Buddhist missions.
Dignagaphilosopher
About 480 to 540 CE; founded the Buddhist school of logic and epistemology.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 10: The Gupta empire
Diodotusking
Seleucid governor of Bactria who declared independence about 250 BCE, founding the Bactrian Greek kingdom.
Domingo Paestraveller
Portuguese at Vijayanagara under Krishnadevaraya, about 1520 to 1522 CE; the most detailed description of the empire at its height.
Theme M1: What "medieval India" meansTheme M6: Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis
Duarte Barbosatraveller
Portuguese official at Cannanore about 1500 to 1516 CE; the line on every man living according to his own creed.
Durgadas Rathorenoble
Smuggled the infant Ajit Singh out of Delhi in 1679 and led 30 years of Rathore resistance.
Durvinitaking
Sixth century Western Ganga scholar king, credited with a commentary on the Kiratarjuniya.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Eknathsaint
1533 to 1599; a Brahmin of Paithan; the Eknathi Bhagavata and the bharud; ate publicly with untouchables.
Fa Hienpilgrim
About 399 to 414 CE, under Chandragupta II; the Fo Guo Ji.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 10: The Gupta empire
Fariduddin Ganjshakarsaint
The Chishti saint at Pakpattan.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526
Ferishtahistorian
Persian chronicler writing around 1610 CE from the sultanates' side; the source of the Hasan Gangu story and the Gilani defection.
Fernao Nuniztraveller
Portuguese horse trader about 1535 to 1537 CE; the fullest account of Raichur and the key testimony on the nayakas.
Firdausipoet
About 940 to 1020 CE; his Shahnameh, about 1010, retold the pre Islamic kings of Persia, composed at Mahmud's court.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Firuz Shah Bahmanisultan
r. 1397 to 1422 CE; scholar and poet, married Deva Raya I's daughter, defeated at Pangal and deposed by his brother Ahmad.
Firuz Shah Tughlaqsultan
r. 1351 to 1388 CE; the longest reign; Firuzabad, the Kotla, canals, two Ashokan pillars to Delhi, the hereditary iqta and 180,000 slaves.
Francois Berniertraveller
French physician in India 1656 to 1668 CE; claimed India had no private property in land.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Ganapati Devaking
Kakatiya, about 1199 to 1262 CE; the greatest of his line; the Warangal fort; patron of Tikkana and the Ramappa temple.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Gandaking
Chandella king, about 1017 to 1029 CE; held Kalinjar against Mahmud in 1021 and 1023.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Gangadevipoet
Wife of Kumara Kampana; her Sanskrit Madhuravijayam is rare as contemporary political history written by a woman.
Gautama Buddhateacher
Siddhartha Gautama of the Shakya clan, born at Lumbini; enlightened at Bodh Gaya, first sermon at Sarnath, died at Kushinagara.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Gautami Balashriqueen
Mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni and author of the Nashik prashasti.
Gautamiputra Satakarniking
The greatest Satavahana, about 106 to 130 CE, who defeated Nahapana and counterstruck his coins.
Gesudarazsaint
d. 1422; carried the Chishti order to the Deccan under the Bahmanis at Gulbarga and wrote in Dakhni.
Ghatotkachaking
With Sri Gupta, founder of the line; the title Maharaja indicates subordinate status.
Ghiyasuddin Azam Shahsultan
Bengal, r. 1390 to 1411 CE; wrote to Hafiz of Shiraz, sent embassies to Ming China and patronised Krittibas's Ramayana.
Ghiyasuddin Muhammadking
The elder Ghurid brother, who held Khorasan and gave Muhammad of Ghor the mandate for India.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaqsultan
r. 1320 to 1325 CE; once Ghazi Malik, governor of Punjab; eased revenue, took Warangal in 1323, died under a collapsing pavilion.
Gondopharesking
The most notable Pahlava ruler, linked in later Christian tradition with the legend of St Thomas.
Gopalaking
About 750 to 770 CE; founder of the Palas, elected by chiefs to end anarchy.
Gorakshanathsaint
Of the Natha tradition, ninth to eleventh century.
Govinda IIIking
Rashtrakuta who briefly occupied Kanauj.
Govindachandraking
Gahadavala, about 1114 to 1154 CE, the greatest of the line; his copper plate grants are primary sources.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Govindaraja (Tomara)chief
Tomara chief of Delhi and Chahamana vassal; wounded Muhammad of Ghor at Tarain in 1191 and was killed there in 1192.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Gulbadan Begumhistorian
Babur's daughter; wrote the Humayun nama about 1587, the only Mughal chronicle by a woman.
Guru Angadsaint
Guru Nanak's named successor, who developed the Gurmukhi script.
Guru Arjan Devsaint
Compiled the Guru Granth Sahib at Amritsar in 1604, with the verses of Kabir, Ravidas, Namdev and Baba Farid.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperors
Guru Gobind SinghSikh Guru
Founded the Khalsa at Anandpur in 1699; his two younger sons were bricked alive at Sirhind in 1704; wrote the Zafarnama.
Guru Nanaksaint
1469 to 1539; born at Talwandi, settled at Kartarpur; Ik Onkar, the 3 pillars, the sangat and the langar, and a named successor.
Guru Tegh BahadurSikh Guru
The ninth Guru; executed at Chandni Chowk on 11 November 1675.
Hajjaj bin Yusufgovernor
Umayyad governor of Iraq, about 661 to 714 CE; organised the Sindh expedition and chose his nephew to lead it.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Halaking
The Satavahana king to whom the Gathasaptashati is traditionally attributed.
Hammiradevaking
Chahamana of Ranthambhore, defeated by Alauddin Khalji in 1301 CE.
Haribhadra Surischolar
About 700 to 770 CE; engaged Buddhist and Brahmanical philosophy.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Harihara I and Bukka Ifounders
Founded Vijayanagara in Karnataka in 1336 CE, during Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign.
Theme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M6: Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis
Harihara IIking
Sangama, r. 1377 to 1404 CE; expanded to the west coast and was the first to take full imperial titles.
Harirajaprince
Prithviraj III's brother, who revolted after 1192; Aibak held Ajmer against him.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Harishenaking
About 475 to 500 CE; the last great Vakataka; united the branches; Ajanta's second phase under his patronage.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early PallavasTheme 10: The Gupta empire
Harshaking
About 606 to 647 CE; hosted Xuanzang; the last major north Indian royal patron.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 12b: North India: Harsha, Palas, Pratiharas
Hasan Nizamihistorian
Author of the Taj ul Maasir, a contemporary Persian account of the conquest in an ornate style.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Hemachandrascholar
About 1089 to 1172 CE; converted Kumarapala; the Parishishtaparvan.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Hemugeneral
Wazir of Adil Shah Suri who took Delhi and Agra as Raja Vikramaditya and was killed after the Second Panipat, 1556.
Hippalusnavigator
The Greek navigator credited by ancient sources with discovering the monsoon winds for direct sailing to India, about the first century BCE.
Hoshang Shahsultan
Malwa, r. 1406 to 1435 CE; moved the capital to Mandu, Shadiabad, and walled the plateau; his tomb is India's first marble building.
Humayunemperor
r. 1530 to 1540 and 1555 to 1556 CE; lost to Sher Shah at Chausa and Kanauj, took Persian help, recovered Delhi in 1555.
Husain Nizam Shah Isultan
Of Ahmadnagar; the prime mover of the alliance that defeated Vijayanagara in 1565 CE.
HusaynAli's son
Killed by the Umayyad army at Karbala in 680 CE; the Shia mourn his death every year at Muharram.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Hussain Shah Sharqisultan
r. 1458 to 1479 CE; traditionally credited with khayal and the Jaunpuri raga; the last independent Sharqi, defeated by Bahlul Lodi.
Huvishkaking
Kushana ruler, about 150 to 190 CE, whose coins show a great variety of deities.
Ibn al Athirhistorian
Arab historian writing two centuries after Somnath, who puts the dead of its defence at over 50,000.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Ibn Battutatraveller
About 1304 to 1368 CE; Moroccan, qadi at Muhammad bin Tughlaq's court about 1334 to 1342; his Rihla describes the court, the capital move and the Doab famine.
Theme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M1: What "medieval India" means
Ibrahim Adil Shah IIsultan
Bijapur, r. 1580 to 1627 CE; Jagadguru Badshah; wrote the Kitab i Navras; patron of the Bijapur school of painting.
Ibrahim Lodisultan
r. 1517 to 1526 CE; the last Lodi, who alienated his nobles and was killed at Panipat.
Ibrahim Shah Sharqisultan
r. 1402 to 1440 CE; the first Sharqi coinage, Jaunpur as Shiraz i Hind, and the Atala Masjid of 1408.
Iltutmishsultan
Mamluk, r. 1211 to 1236 CE; the true founder: the iqta, caliphal recognition in 1229, the tanka and jital, the Qutb Minar completed and the first Islamic tomb.
Theme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Indra IIIking
Rashtrakuta who sacked Kanauj about 916.
Irfan Habibhistorian
The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1963; the jagirdar as a bird of passage and the agrarian crisis.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Islam Shahsultan
Sur, r. 1545 to 1554 CE; centralised his father's system and wrote down its regulations, but lost the Afghan nobles.
Itsingpilgrim
About 671 to 695 CE; A Record of Buddhist Practices.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
J. F. Richardshistorian
Argued there was no absolute shortage of jagirs in the Deccan, only a political failure.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Jadunath Sarkarhistorian
Author of the History of Aurangzib, 1912 to 1924, and the phrase the Deccan ulcer.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Jahanaraprincess
Shah Jahan's daughter; laid out Chandni Chowk in Shahjahanabad.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Jahangiremperor
r. 1605 to 1627 CE; Prince Salim; issued twelve ordinances and the chain of justice; wrote the Tuzuk; patron of the album painters.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Jai Singhgeneral
Mirza Raja Jai Singh, Aurangzeb's general, who made the Treaty of Purandar with Shivaji in 1665.
Jaisiahprince
Dahir's son; held Brahmanabad after Rawar until it fell, then fled north; died about 713 CE.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Jalaluddin Khaljisultan
r. 1290 to 1296 CE; founder of the Khalji dynasty, old and mild, murdered by his nephew Alauddin.
James Millhistorian
Wrote the History of British India, 1817, which divided Indian history into Hindu, Muslim and British periods.
Jayachandraking
The last significant Gahadavala; killed by Muhammad Ghori at Chandawar in 1194.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Jayanakapoet
Court poet of Prithviraj III; the Prithviraj Vijaya.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Jayapalaking
Hindu Shahi king of Udabhandapura; defeated by Subuktigin, then defeated and captured by Mahmud near Peshawar in 1001 CE.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Jayasimha Siddharajaking
Chaulukya king of Gujarat before Kumarapala.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Jean Baptiste Taverniertraveller
French gem merchant; described the Peacock Throne.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Jimutavahanascholar
Author of the Dayabhaga, followed in Bengal and Assam.
Jivakaphysician
The physician Bimbisara sent to Pradyota of Avanti when he had jaundice.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Jnaneshwarpoet
Author of the Jnaneshwari, about 1290 CE.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
John Marshallarchaeologist
Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India who played a major role in announcing the discovery to the world.
Kabirsaint
c. 1440 to 1518; a julaha of Banaras who taught one formless God, scorned temple and mosque alike, left the Bijak and died at Maghar.
Kadambavasaminister
Chief minister of Prithviraj III.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Kakusthavarmanking
The greatest Kadamba; married his daughters into the Guptas and Vakatakas; the Talagunda pillar is of his reign.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Kalashokaking
Kalasoka of the Shishunaga dynasty; patron of the Second Council.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Kalhanahistorian
Author of the Rajatarangini, about 1148 CE, the one true historical chronicle in Sanskrit.
Theme 12c: The Rajput kingdomsTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
Kalidasapoet
The greatest figure in Sanskrit literature, traditionally at Chandragupta II's court; his dates are debated.
Theme 10: The Gupta empireTheme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Kambanpoet
Author of the Kambaramayanam, twelfth century.
Kanhaking
Krishna, Simuka's brother and successor, who expanded Satavahana territory southward.
Kanishka Iking
About 127 to 150 CE; convened the Sarvastivada Fourth Council; carried Buddhism along the Silk Route.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western Satraps
Kannappa Nayanarsaint
A hunter who offered his own eyes to a weeping Shiva image.
Kapaya Nayakageneral
A general of Prataparudra II; with Prolaya Nayaka, led the resistance that contributed to the founding of Vijayanagara.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Karen Leonardhistorian
The great firm theory: banking houses withdrew their credit from the Mughal centre.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Karikalaking
The greatest Sangam age Chola; built a great embankment on the Kaveri and won the battle of Venni against a Chera and Pandya confederacy with eleven chieftains.
Karpuradeviqueen mother
Prithviraj III's mother, under whom he became king as a boy.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Kassapagotamissionary
Named in the Mahavamsa among Ashoka's Buddhist missions.
Kharavelaking
Of Kalinga, 1st century BCE; the most important early royal Jain patron; the Hathigumpha inscription.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Khizr Khansultan
r. 1414 to 1421 CE; Timur's governor of Punjab and founder of the Sayyids, styled Rayat i Ala, never Sultan.
Khusrau Iking
Sassanid king under whom the Panchatantra was put into Pahlavi, the root of Kalila wa Dimna.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Khusrau Malikking
The last Ghaznavid, who lost Lahore to Muhammad of Ghor in 1186.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Kirtivarman Iking
About 566 to 597 CE; conquered the Kadambas.
Kirtivarman IIking
About 744 to 753 CE; the last Chalukya of Badami.
Kochengannanking
Chola; associated with building Shiva temples, a transitional figure toward the Bhakti period.
Konganivarman Madhavaking
Founder of the Western Gangas, traditionally about 350 CE.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Kosala Deviqueen
Daughter of the king of Kosala, sister of Prasenajit and a wife of Bimbisara.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Kota Raniqueen
Queen of Udyan Dev, the last Hindu ruler of Kashmir, and the effective ruler; Shah Mir founded the sultanate on her death in 1339.
Krishna Iking
About 756 to 773 CE; built the Kailasanatha at Ellora.
Krishna IIIking
About 939 to 967 CE; defeated Parantaka I at Takkolam; a pillar at Rameswaram.
Krishnadeva Rayaemperor
Tuluva, r. 1509 to 1529 CE; Sivasamudram, the Kalinga war and Raichur in 1520; author of the Amuktamalyada; patron of the Ashtadiggajas.
Kubja Vishnuvardhanaking
Brother of Pulakesi II; founder of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
Kujula Kadphisesking
Founder of the Kushana empire, about 30 to 80 CE, who unified the Yuezhi clans.
Kulottunga Iking
Born of a Vengi Chalukya prince and a Chola princess; united the two realms.
Theme 12d: The Deccan: Chalukyas to YadavasTheme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Kumara Kampanaprince
Son of Bukka I; destroyed the Madurai Sultanate about 1370 CE, the subject of his wife Gangadevi's Madhuravijayam.
Kumaradeviqueen
The Lichchhavi princess whose name and figure appear with Chandragupta I's on his gold coins.
Kumaradevi (Gahadavala)queen
Govindachandra's queen, whose inscription at Sarnath says Hari set him to protect Varanasi from the Turushka.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Kumaragupta Iking
Founded Nalanda.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 10: The Gupta empire
Kumarapalaking
Chaulukya king of Gujarat converted under Hemachandra's influence.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Kumarila Bhattaphilosopher
Attacked Buddhist epistemology from the Mimamsa side in the 7th century.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Kundakundaphilosopher
About 1st to 5th century CE; the most revered Digambara philosopher; the Samayasara.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Kundavaiprincess
Rajaraja I's daughter, married into the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
Lachit Barphukangeneral
The Ahom commander who, mortally ill, won the battle of Saraighat on the Brahmaputra in March 1671; Lachit Divas is 24 November.
Lakshmana Senaking
The old Sena king who fled Nadia in 1204 to east Bengal, where the Senas ruled on.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Lal Dedsaint
c. 1320 to 1392; Shaiva, whose vakhs are among the earliest Kashmiri literature; revered by Hindus and Muslims alike.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M7: Regional kingdoms and their legacy
Lalitaditya Muktapidaking
Karkota king of Kashmir, c. 724 to 760 CE; built the Martand Sun Temple and Parihasapura; defeated Yashovarman of Kannauj.
Latadevaastronomer
A pupil of Aryabhata, associated with the Romaka and Paulisha Siddhantas.
Lokamahadeviqueen
Vikramaditya II's queen; built the Virupaksha at Pattadakal to mark his victory over the Pallavas.
M. Athar Alihistorian
The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb, 1966; coined the jagirdari crisis, and showed the Hindu share of nobles rising.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Madhavendra Purisaint
The spiritual ancestor of Chaitanya and of the Vallabha tradition, through whom Dvaita shaped north Indian Bhakti.
Madhvacharyaphilosopher
About 1238 to 1317 CE; born at Pajaka near Udupi; Dvaita Vedanta; the Udupi Krishna temple and eight mutts.
Mahakashyapadisciple
A major disciple of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Mahakassapamonk
Presided over the First Council, about 483 BCE.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Mahanandinking
The last Shishunaga ruler, killed by Mahapadma Nanda.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Mahapadma Nandaking
Founder of the Nanda dynasty, who called himself ekarat, the sole sovereign.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Mahaprajapati Gautamiqueen
Stepmother and foster mother of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Maharana Pratapking
Udai Singh's son; fought Akbar's army at Haldighati in 1576, won at Dewair in 1582 and recovered most of Mewar; died 1597.
MahaviraTirthankara
The 24th Tirthankara and great historical organiser of Jainism; born at Kundagrama near Vaishali, died at Pavapuri.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developmentsTheme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Mahendrapala Iking
About 885 to 910 CE; the Pratihara empire at its widest; patron of Rajashekhara.
Mahendravarman Iking
Pallava, about 600 to 630 CE; turned Shaiva under Appar; wrote the Mattavilasa Prahasana; pioneered rock cut temples.
Mahindamonk
Carried Buddhism to Sri Lanka after the Third Council.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Mahipala Iking
About 988 to 1038 CE; the Pala revival.
Mahmud Begarhasultan
Gujarat, r. 1458 to 1511 CE; took Girnar and Champaner; won at Chaul in 1508 and lost at Diu in 1509.
Mahmud Gawanminister
Afaqi from Gilan, Malik ut Tujjar and effective ruler 1466 to 1481 CE; took Goa, reformed the tarafs and forts, and built the Bidar madrasa; executed in 1481.
Mahmud Khalji Isultan
Malwa, r. 1436 to 1469 CE; the kingdom's greatest extent; long wars with Rana Kumbha, each side raising a victory tower.
Mahmud of Ghazniking
Raided India from 997 to 1030; sacked Kanauj about 1018.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme 12b: North India: Harsha, Palas, Pratiharas
Majjhimamissionary
Named in the Mahavamsa among the Buddhist missions Ashoka sent after the third council.
Makkhali Gosalateacher
The most famous Ajivika teacher, a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Malik Ambarminister
Habshi regent of Ahmadnagar; perfected guerrilla war, founded Khirki and employed Shahji Bhonsle; died 1626.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M7: Regional kingdoms and their legacy
Malik Hasan Bahrinoble
Leader of the Deccani faction who forged the letter that brought Gawan's execution; father of the founder of Ahmadnagar.
Malik Kafurgeneral
Died 1316 CE; a eunuch slave bought in Gujarat who led all four of Alauddin's Deccan campaigns, murdered after his patron's death.
Theme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Malik Sarwarsultan
Founder of the Sharqi sultanate of Jaunpur; a eunuch slave under the later Tughlaqs, titled Malik us Sharq, sent east as governor in 1394.
Mamulanarpoet
Sangam poet whose Akananuru may refer to a Mauryan southward expansion.
Man Singhgeneral
A Hindu general who commanded Mughal armies.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M1: What "medieval India" means
Mangaleshaking
About 597 to 609 CE; commissioned Cave 3 at Badami; killed by his nephew.
Manikkavacakarsaint
Minister to a Pandya king, 9th century; the Tiruvasakam.
Maravarman Kulasekara Pandya Iking
About 1268 to 1310 CE; the greatest Pandya; most of Tamil Nadu, parts of Kerala and Sri Lanka; his court described by Marco Polo.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Marco Polotraveller
Visited south India about 1292 to 1294 CE; described the Pandya kingdom, the Gulf of Mannar pearls and a woman ruler in Andhra.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Masud Isultan
Mahmud's son, ruled 1030 to 1040 CE; lost Khorasan to the Seljuks at Dandanaqan in 1040; Al Biruni dedicated the Qanun al Masudi to him.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Mauesking
Moga, one of the earliest Shaka rulers in India, who controlled Taxila.
Mayurasharmanking
Founder of the Kadambas; a Brahmin who took the name Mayuravarman.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Medini Raichief
Rajput lord of Chanderi, defeated by Babur in January 1528, when a jauhar was performed.
Megasthenesambassador
Greek ambassador of Seleucus Nikator at Pataliputra and author of the Indica.
Meghavarmanking
Of Sri Lanka; built a monastery at Bodh Gaya for Sinhalese pilgrims with Samudragupta's permission.
Menanderking
About 165 to 130 BCE; immortalised in the Milindapanha.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western SatrapsTheme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Mihira Bhojaking
About 836 to 885 CE; the greatest Pratihara; took the title Adivaraha.
Mihirakulaking
Toramana's son, remembered as a tyrant by Kalhana and as a persecutor of Buddhists by Xuanzang; defeated by Yashodharman.
Minhaj i Sirajhistorian
Minhaj i Siraj Juzjani; the Tabaqat i Nasiri, about 1260, the main source for the conquest and for Bengal.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Mir Sayyid Alipainter
A Persian master Humayun recruited from Shah Tahmasp's atelier; a founder of the Mughal school.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Mirabaipoet
c. 1498 to 1546, traditional; a Rajput princess of Merta married into Mewar, who left rank and marriage for Krishna as Giridhar.
Mirak Mirza Ghiyasarchitect
The architect of Humayun's tomb, the first monumental garden tomb in India.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Moggaliputta Tissamonk
Presided over the Third Council, about 250 BCE.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Moggallanadisciple
A major disciple of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Moinuddin Chishtisaint
The Chishti saint at Ajmer, of the order that bridged the Muslim ruling class and the non Muslim population.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526
Muawiyacaliph
Governor of Syria who fought Ali at Siffin in 657 CE and founded the hereditary Umayyad caliphate at Damascus.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Mudukudumi Peruvaludhiking
One of the earliest named Pandya kings; performed the Rajasuya and took the title Palshalai for his many sacrificial halls.
Muhammad bin Qasimcommander
About 695 to 715 CE; Hajjaj's nephew and son in law; conquered Sindh at about seventeen; recalled and killed about 715.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Muhammad bin Tughlaqsultan
r. 1325 to 1351 CE; learned and disastrous; the five experiments; Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis broke away; died on campaign in Sindh.
Muhammad Ghoriking
Lost the first battle of Tarain in 1191 and won the second in 1192.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shahsultan
Golconda, r. 1580 to 1612 CE; founded Hyderabad and built the Charminar in 1591; first to compile a divan in Urdu.
Muhammad Shah Isultan
Bahmani, r. 1358 to 1375 CE; created the great offices, fought Bukka I in 1362 to 1367 and built the Gulbarga Jama Masjid.
Muhammad Shah III Lashkarisultan
Bahmani, r. 1463 to 1482 CE; the sultanate's greatest extent under Gawan, whose execution he ordered in 1481.
Mularaja IIking
The boy Chaulukya king whose army, under his mother Naiki Devi, won at Kasahrada in 1178.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Munjaking
Paramara, about 974 to 995 CE; campaigned against the Western Chalukyas; a poet; died in battle.
Muzaffar Alamhistorian
The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India, 1986; decline at the centre, not in the regions.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Nadir Shahinvader
Sacked Delhi in 1739 CE and carried off the Peacock Throne.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Nagabhata Iking
About 730 to 760 CE; checked the Arab advance from Sindh.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme 12b: North India: Harsha, Palas, Pratiharas
Nagabhata IIking
About 805 to 833 CE; made Kanauj the Pratihara capital.
Nagadasakaking
The last Haryanka ruler, killed by his minister Shishunaga.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Naganikaqueen
Wife of Satakarni I, whose prashasti is the Nanaghat inscription.
Nagarjunaphilosopher
About 150 to 250 CE; founded Madhyamaka; the Mulamadhyamakakarika.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western Satraps
Nagarjuna (Jain)monk
Led the first session of the second Jain council at Vallabhi, about 453 CE; not the Buddhist philosopher.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Nagasenamonk
About 150 BCE; debated Menander; the Milindapanha records the chariot simile for anatta.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western Satraps
Nahapanaking
Kshaharata ruler, about 119 to 124 CE, defeated by Gautamiputra Satakarni, who counterstruck his coins.
Naiki Deviqueen regent
Chaulukya regent for her son Mularaja II; her army routed Muhammad of Ghor at Kasahrada in 1178.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Nakkirarpoet
Author of the Tirumurukkarruppatai, the most important Sangam poem about Murugan.
Nambiyandar Nambischolar
At whose instance the Tevaram was compiled under Rajaraja I.
Namdevsaint
c. 1270 to 1350; a tailor whose Marathi abhangs reached the Punjab and the Guru Granth Sahib.
Nammalvarsaint
The greatest Alvar, 9th century; the Thiruvaimozhi, the Tamil Veda.
Nannayapoet
About 1022 CE; the first poet of Telugu, who began the Mahabharata translation.
Nara Narayanking
Koch, r. 1540 to 1587 CE; with his brother Chilarai brought the Koch kingdom to its height.
Narasimhagupta Baladityaking
A later Gupta who, according to Xuanzang, captured Mihirakula.
Narasimhavarman Iking
Pallava, about 630 to 668 CE, Mamalla; killed Pulakesi II and took the title Vatapikonda; the rathas.
Narendrasenaking
Held the Nandivardhana line under pressure from the Nalas and the southern branch.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Naropamonk
Associated with the Vajrayana centres of Nalanda and Vikramashila.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Narsinh Mehtapoet
c. 1414 to 1481; the first great poet of Gujarati, whose Vaishnava jana to was Gandhi's favourite bhajan.
Nasiruddin Chiragh i Delhisaint
d. 1356; the Lamp of Delhi, last of the great Delhi Chishtis, after whom the order dispersed.
Nedum Cheralatanking
Chera; praised in the Patitrupattu for military victories and generosity to poets.
Nedunjeliyanking
Pandya; won the battle of Talaiyalanganam against a coalition of Chera, Chola and five minor kings, and the Nedunalvadai (Nedunalappatai) describes his army and court.
Nicolo de Contitraveller
Venetian at Vijayanagara about 1420 CE under Deva Raya I; called the city Bizenegalia and described its festivals.
Nizamuddin Auliyasaint
1238 to 1325 CE; the Chishti saint of Delhi, Khusrau's master, who refused to meet any sultan.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526
Nund Rishisaint
c. 1377 to 1438; founder of the Rishi order of Kashmir, the one silsila of purely Indian origin.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M7: Regional kingdoms and their legacy
Nur Jahanempress
Mihr un Nisa; married Jahangir in 1611; coins struck in her name; the centre of Beni Prasad's junta thesis.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Padmasambhavamonk
Carried Vajrayana to Tibet in the 8th century.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Palkuriki Somanathapoet
13th century Telugu and Kannada poet; wrote the Basava Purana, on Basavanna.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Pampapoet
About 902 to 975 CE; the Adikavi of Kannada; the Vikramarjuna Vijaya and the Adipurana.
Paninigrammarian
Author of the Ashtadhyayi, of the fifth to fourth century BCE; from the Gandhara region, he studied at Taxila.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Paramardidevaking
Chandella, about 1165 to 1203 CE; defeated by Prithviraj III about 1182 and later by the Ghurids.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Paramesvaravarman Iking
Pallava, about 670 to 695 CE.
Parantaka Iking
About 907 to 955 CE; gilded the Chidambaram roof; defeated at Takkolam.
Parichief
A Velir chieftain of the Parambu hill region, famous for his extraordinary generosity.
ParshvanathaTirthankara
The 23rd Tirthankara, probably of the early first millennium BCE, whose ascetic tradition Mahavira inherited and expanded.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developmentsTheme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Patanjaligrammarian
Author of the Mahabhashya, said to have officiated as priest at Pushyamitra's Ashvamedha.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Ponnapoet
One of the three gems of early Kannada literature.
Porusking
Ruler between the Hydaspes and the Acesines who fought Alexander in 326 BCE, was defeated and was reinstated as satrap.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Prabhakarvardhanaking
Harsha's father; expanded Pushyabhuti power through marriages with the Maukharis and the Guptas of Bengal.
Prabhavatiguptaqueen
Daughter of Chandragupta II, married to the Vakataka Rudrasena II; regent for at least thirteen years, issuing land grants in her own name.
Prasenajitking
An important ruler of Kosala.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Prataparudra Gajapatiking
Gajapati of Odisha, Krishnadeva Raya's opponent in the Kalinga war of 1513 to 1519; made peace by giving his daughter in marriage.
Prataparudra Iking
Kakatiya, about 1158 to 1196 CE; established full independence from the Western Chalukyas.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Prataparudra IIking
The last Kakatiya, about 1289 to 1323 CE; defeated by Malik Kafur in 1310 and Ulugh Khan in 1323.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Pravarasena Iking
About 270 to 330 CE; the real builder of Vakataka power; performed the ashvamedha and vajapeya; alone took the title Samrat.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Pravarasena IIking
About 400 to 440 CE; originally Damodarasena; founded Pravarapura; wrote the Setubandha; a Shaiva.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Prithu of Kamarupaking
The king of Kamarupa whom Assamese tradition names as the victor over Bakhtiyar in 1206.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Prithviraj IIIking
Prithviraj Chauhan, about 1177 to 1192 CE; won the first battle of Tarain and lost the second.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Prithvishena Iking
About 365 to 390 CE; likened to Yudhishthira; allied with Chandragupta II against the Shaka Satraps.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Prithvishena IIking
Claimed twice to have rescued the sunken fortunes of the family.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Prolaya Nayakageneral
A general of Prataparudra II; led the later resistance that contributed to the founding of Vijayanagara.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Pulakesi Iking
About 543 to 566 CE; founder of the Chalukyas of Badami; performed the ashvamedha.
Pulakesi IIking
About 609 to 642 CE; the greatest Chalukya; defeated Harsha on the Narmada; killed by Narasimhavarman I.
Purandaradasasaint
c. 1484 to 1564; the Haridasa called Karnataka Sangita Pitamaha, who codified the exercises used to teach Carnatic music.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M6: Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis
Pushyamitra Shungageneral
Brahmana general who assassinated Brihadratha, the last Maurya.
Theme 7: Mauryan empireTheme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Qubachagovernor
Ghor's ghulam at Multan and Uch, married to Aibak's sister.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Qutb ud din Aibakking
Ghori's deputy after Delhi fell; the Sultanate followed in 1206.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kakisaint
d. 1235; the Chishti of Delhi in Iltutmish's time, around whose presence Mehrauli grew.
R. D. Banerjiarchaeologist
Excavated Mohenjodaro in 1922, confirming that Harappa was not an isolated settlement.
R. S. Sharmahistorian
Argued in Indian Feudalism that the period produced an Indian form of feudalism.
Rachamallaking
The Western Ganga king whose minister commissioned the Gommateshvara.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Rajadhiraja Iking
About 1018 to 1054 CE; the Viradabhisheka.
Rajaraja Iking
About 985 to 1014 CE; Mummudi Chola; the Brihadeeswara; northern Sri Lanka a province.
Rajaraja IIking
Built the Airavatesvara at Darasuram.
Rajashekharapoet
Author of the Karpuramanjari, the Balaramayana, the Balamahabharata and the Kavyamimamsa.
Rajasimhaking
Narasimhavarman II, Pallava, about 695 to 728 CE; the Kailasanatha at Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple.
Rajendra Iking
About 1014 to 1044 CE; Gangaikonda Chola; the Srivijaya expedition about 1025.
Rajendra IIIking
The last Chola, a Pandya vassal by 1279.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and KakatiyasTheme 12e: South India: Pallavas, Pandyas, Cholas
Rajyapalaking
Fled before Mahmud of Ghazni's sack of Kanauj about 1018.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme 12b: North India: Harsha, Palas, Pratiharas
Rajyashriqueen
Harsha's sister, taken prisoner in the crisis of 606.
Rajyavardhanaking
Harsha's elder brother, killed by Devagupta of Malwa in 606.
Rakkhita Theramonk
Presided over the Theravada Fourth Council at Aluvihara.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Rama Rayaregent
Krishnadeva Raya's son in law and regent for Sadasiva from 1542 CE; played the sultanates off until 1564; beheaded at Rakshasi Tangadi in 1565.
Ramaguptaking
About 375 CE, brief and disputed; known from the Devichandraguptam and three Jain images at Durjanpur naming him Maharajadhiraja.
Ramanandasaint
Placed in the 15th century; tradition makes him a disciple of the Ramanuja line who settled at Banaras and took disciples of every caste, Kabir and Ravidas among them.
Ramanujaphilosopher
Traditionally about 1017 to 1137 CE; under him the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana converted.
Ramapalaking
About 1077 to 1130 CE; the last significant Pala; suppressed the Kaivarta revolt.
Ramdassaint
1608 to 1681; the Dasbodh; his role as Shivaji's guru is later tradition.
Rana Kumbhaking
Of Mewar; fought Mahmud Khalji I of Malwa and raised the Vijaya Stambha at Chittor in 1448 for his claim of victory.
Rana Sangaking
Rana of Mewar who invited Babur against Ibrahim Lodi and was beaten by him at Khanwa in 1527.
Rani Baiqueen
Dahir's queen, who held the fort of Rawar after his death in 712 CE.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Rani Durgavatiqueen
Ruler of Gondwana with her son Vir Narayan; her kingdom was taken by Asaf Khan in 1564.
Rannapoet
One of the three gems of early Kannada literature.
Ravidassaint
15th to 16th century; a leather worker of Banaras whose Begumpura is a city without sorrow, where none is taxed; his verses are in the Guru Granth Sahib.
Ravikirtipoet
Court poet of Pulakesi II; composed the Aihole inscription of 634 CE.
Raziasultan
r. 1236 to 1240 CE; nominated by Iltutmish, she fought the Forty, made Yaqut Amir i Akhur, and was killed near Kaithal; the only woman Sultan of Delhi.
Recharla Rudrageneral
The Kakatiya general who built the Ramappa temple in 1213 CE under Ganapati Deva.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Richard Eatonhistorian
Historian whose work on Bengal links mass conversion to agrarian expansion and the settlement of new land, not preaching.
RishabhanathaTirthankara
The first Tirthankara, the earliest and most primordial teacher in Jain tradition.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Romila Thaparhistorian
The decline was internal transformation, not simply external attack.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Rudra Singhaking
Ahom, r. 1696 to 1714 CE; moved the capital to Rangpur and built the Joysagar tank and the Namdang stone bridge of 1703.
Rudradamanking
His Junagadh inscription of 150 CE records the Sudarshana lake of the Mauryas.
Rudradaman Iking
The most important Western Satrap, about 130 to 150 CE, of the Junagadh inscription and the Sudarshana lake.
Rudrama Deviqueen
Kakatiya, about 1262 to 1289 CE; ruled in her own right, not as regent; died in battle against Ambadeva.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Rudrasena Iking
Grandson of Pravarasena I; founder of the Nandivardhana branch.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Rudrasena IIking
About 390 to 395 CE; married Prabhavatigupta and died after five years.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
S. R. Raoarchaeologist
Among the Indian archaeologists who worked on the civilisation after independence.
Sabbakamimonk
Presided over the Second Council, about 383 BCE.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Sadayavarman Sundara Pandya Iking
About 1251 to 1268 CE; the first great medieval Pandya; defeated the Hoysalas and expelled the Cholas from the far south.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Salim Chishtisaint
d. 1572; Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri in his honour after the birth of the future Jahangir.
Saluva Narasimhaking
r. 1485 to 1491 CE; a provincial governor who seized the throne from the last Sangama to save the empire from the Gajapatis.
Sambandarsaint
A Brahmin child, 7th century; the most prolific Nayanmar; debated Jains and Buddhists.
Sambhajiking
Shivaji's son, r. 1680 to 1689; sheltered Prince Akbar; executed at Tulapur in 1689, which turned the war into a popular one.
SambhavanathaTirthankara
The third Tirthankara.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Samudraguptaking
About 335 to 375 CE; the Prayaga Prashasti records his campaigns; revived the ashvamedha; titles Kaviraja, Apratiratha, Vyaghra parakrama.
Sanghamittanun
Took a sapling of the Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Sankaradevasaint
Traditionally 1449 to 1568; Ekasarana Nama Dharma in Assam; Borgeet, Ankia Naat, Bhaona and Sattriya; the Sattra and the Namghar.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M7: Regional kingdoms and their legacy
Sariputtadisciple
A major disciple of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Sarvasenaking
About 330 to 355 CE; son of Pravarasena I, founder of the Vatsagulma branch; wrote the Harivijaya, some verses of which entered the Gathasaptashati.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Satakarni Iking
Performed the Ashvamedha; Lord of Dakshinapatha; extended power west to Nashik.
Satish Chandrahistorian
The jagirdari crisis, be jagiri and the crisis of the mediatory apparatus; Parties and Politics at the Mughal Court.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Sayanascholar
Wrote the Vedartha Prakasha, commentaries on all four Vedas, under Bukka I and Harihara II; the base text of Max Muller's Rigveda.
Sekkizharpoet
Author of the Periyapuranam, under Kulottunga II.
Seleucus Nikatorking
Held the eastern Seleucid territories; after war with Chandragupta about 305 BCE he ceded Baluchistan, eastern Afghanistan and the region west of the Indus.
Senguttuvanking
The Red Chera, the most celebrated Chera king; his campaign to the Himalayas for stone for Kannagi's statue is told in the Silappatikaram and Patitrupattu, possibly legend.
Shah Jahanemperor
r. 1628 to 1658 CE; Khurram; ended Ahmadnagar in 1636, lost Balkh and Kandahar, confined by Aurangzeb; buried in the Taj.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Shah Mirsultan
Founded the Kashmir sultanate in 1339, which lasted 222 years.
Shahji Bhonslenoble
Maratha bargir under Malik Ambar; after 1636 in Bijapur service with a jagir at Poona; Shivaji's father.
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindisaint
1564 to 1624; the Naqshbandi Mujaddid i alf i sani, who advanced wahdat ul shuhud, opposed Akbar's policy and was imprisoned by Jahangir.
Shamsuddin Ilyas Shahsultan
Bengal, r. 1342 to 1358 CE; united Bengal with its capital at Pandua, took the title Shah i Bangalah, and withstood Firuz Shah at Ekdala.
Shankaracharyaphilosopher
About 788 to 820 CE; born at Kaladi; Advaita Vedanta; the four mathas.
Shantarakshitamonk
Carried Vajrayana to Tibet in the 8th century.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Shantidevamonk
About 685 to 763 CE; the Bodhicharyavatara, at Nalanda.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Sharfuddin Yahya Manerisaint
d. 1381; the Firdausi of Bihar, whose Maktubat are among the finest Sufi prose written in India.
Shashankaking
Of Gauda in Bengal; Devagupta's ally in 606.
Sher Shahsultan
r. 1540 to 1545 CE; Farid Khan of Sasaram; measured the land, fixed the ray, built the Sadak i Azam and sarais, struck the silver rupiya.
Shishunagaking
Founder of the Shishunaga dynasty of Magadha, who destroyed the power of Avanti.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Shishupalaking
King of Chedi, mentioned in the Mahabharata.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Shivajiking
Born 1630; killed Afzal Khan at Pratapgad, signed Purandar in 1665, crowned Chhatrapati at Raigad in 1674; died 1680.
Siddhasena Divakaraphilosopher
5th to 6th century CE; Shvetambara logician; the Nyayavatara.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Sikandar Lodisultan
r. 1489 to 1517 CE; the greatest Lodi; founded Agra in 1504, patronised Persian, imposed jizya, reached Bihar.
Sikandar Shah of Kashmirsultan
r. 1389 to 1413 CE; titled But Shikan; first to impose jizya on Kashmiri Hindus; temple destruction including Martand.
Simhavarmanking
Pallava; his charters mark the shift from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Simhavishnuking
About 575 to 600 CE; defeated the Kalabhras and took the title Avanisimha, opening the imperial Pallava phase.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Simukaking
Traditionally the founder, credited by the Puranas with overthrowing the Kanvas about 28 BCE; said to have ruled 23 years.
Sivaskandavarmanking
About the fourth century; the first clearly historical Pallava; Prakrit plates; the ashvamedha; Dharmamaharaja.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Skandaguptaking
About 455 to 467 CE; the last effective Gupta; defeated the Hunas; Kramaditya on some coins; the Junagadh and Bhitari inscriptions.
Somadeva Suripoet
Poet of Vigraharaja IV's court; the Lalitavigraharaja.
Somanatha Dandanayakageneral
A Hoysala general; built the Keshava temple at Somnathpur in 1268 CE.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Someshvara IIIking
Western Chalukya king who wrote the Manasollasa, about 1131 CE.
Sri Guptaking
With Ghatotkacha, founder of the line, about 240 to 319 CE, using only the modest title Maharaja.
Srimara Srivallabhaking
Pandya, about 815 to 862 CE; invaded Sri Lanka.
Sthulabhadramonk
Stayed in Magadha during the famine; the first Jain council, about 300 BCE.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Subuktiginking
Ruled Ghazni 977 to 997 CE; defeated the Hindu Shahi Jayapala and took the land to Laghman.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Sudasking
King of the Bharata tribe who defeated a confederation of ten tribes on the banks of the Parushni in the Battle of Ten Kings.
Suha Bhattaminister
Sikandar Shah's minister, a Brahmin convert, generally named as the driver of the persecution in Kashmir.
Suhungmungking
Ahom, r. 1497 to 1539 CE; the Dihingia Raja; first to take the Hindu title Swarganarayan; annexed the Chutia kingdom; first population survey, 1510.
Sukaphaaking
A Tai prince from Mong Mao who crossed the Patkai hills and founded the Ahom kingdom in 1228.
Sulaimanmerchant
Arab traveller who called the Rashtrakuta king the greatest in the world after the Caliph.
Sultan Quli Qutb ul Mulksultan
Founder of the Qutb Shahis; tarafdar of Telangana about 1495; independent in 1518; murdered at about ninety in 1543.
Sundararsaint
8th century Nayanmar, the friend of Shiva; the list of the 63 is attributed to him.
Surdaspoet
c. 1478 to 1583, traditional; blind by tradition, one of the Ashtachhap; the Sursagar made Braj Bhasha a literary language.
Susarmanking
The last Kanva king, overthrown by the Satavahanas about 28 BCE.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Sushrutaphysician
Traditionally placed in the sixth century BCE at Kashi, though the surviving Sushruta Samhita was redacted much later.
Tailapa IIking
About 973 to 997 CE; founder of the Western Chalukyas.
Tarabairegent
Led the diffuse Maratha guerrilla resistance after Rajaram's stand at Jinji, with no capital for the Mughals to take.
Tenali Ramakrishnapoet
The Vikata Kavi among the Ashtadiggajas; the Panduranga Mahatmyamu.
The Prophet Muhammadprophet
Born about 570 CE at Mecca; the first revelation about 610, the Hijra to Medina in 622; died at Medina in 632.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Thirumalisai Alvarsaint
Of low caste origin, 7th century; known for philosophical debate.
Thomas Roeambassador
Ambassador of James I, 1615 to 1619; won a farman for English trade but no treaty.
Tikkanapoet
13th century Telugu poet of the kavitrayam; translated 15 of the 18 books of the Andhra Mahabharatam under the Kakatiyas.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Tilopamonk
Associated with the Vajrayana centres of Nalanda and Vikramashila.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Timmarusuminister
Krishnadeva Raya's mahapradhana, the best known minister of the empire; found the weak point at Kondavidu.
Timurconqueror
Turco Mongol conqueror from Central Asia; crossed the Indus and sacked Delhi in 1398 CE, leaving the Sultanate a local power.
Tirumalaking
Rama Raya's brother; escaped to Penukonda with the treasury in 1565 and founded the Aravidu dynasty there in 1570 CE.
Todar Maladministrator
Hindu; the architect of Akbar's land revenue system.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and cultureTheme M1: What "medieval India" means
Tolkappiyarscholar
Author of the Tolkappiyam, the oldest surviving Tamil work, a grammar and poetics.
Toramanaking
Huna ruler of central India, about 493 to 515 CE; his Eran boar inscription proves Malwa had left Gupta hands.
Trishalaqueen
Mother of Mahavira and sister of Chetaka, the Licchavi chief.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Tukaramsaint
c. 1608 to 1650; a kunbi grain trader of Dehu, the greatest of the abhang poets.
Tulsidaspoet
1532 to 1623; wrote the Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi at Ayodhya from 1574; socially conservative.
Tuluva Narasa Nayakaregent
Saluva Narasimha's commander, regent about 1491 to 1503 CE; campaigned against the Gajapatis but never took the throne; father of Vira Narasimha.
Udai Singh IIking
Rana of Mewar who withdrew from Chittor before Akbar's siege of 1567 to 1568.
Udayanaking
Ruler of Vatsa, and hero of three later romantic dramas: Bhasa's Svapnavasavadattam, and Harsha's Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Udayana (Nyaya)philosopher
Nyaya philosopher of the 10th to 11th century; the Nyayakusumanjali.
Udayinking
Haryanka ruler of Magadha, 460 to 444 BCE, who moved the capital to Pataliputra.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Uddaka Ramaputtateacher
A teacher under whom the Buddha first studied.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Udiyanjeralking
Chera; said to have fed both armies at Kurukshetra, a legendary claim to Chera antiquity and generosity.
Umarcaliph
The second Rashidun caliph, 634 to 644 CE; Arab armies took Syria, Iraq, Egypt and most of Persia under him.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Umasvatischolar
About 2nd to 5th century CE; the Tattvartha Sutra, accepted by both sects.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Upalidisciple
A major disciple of the Buddha.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developmentsTheme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Uranthai Killivalavanking
Chola; praised in the Purananuru as a generous patron of bards.
Ustad Ahmad Lahauriarchitect
Chief architect of the Taj Mahal.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Ustad Mansurpainter
Jahangir's Nadir ul Asr, the Wonder of the Age: the Siberian crane, the turkey cock, the dodo and the zebra.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Utbihistorian
About 961 to 1036 CE; Mahmud's secretary, whose Tarikh i Yamini, written to praise him, is the chief contemporary account of the raids.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Uthmancaliph
The third Rashidun caliph, 644 to 656 CE; the Quran was given its standard written form under him; killed in 656.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Vallabhacharyasaint
1479 to 1531; Shuddhadvaita and the Pushtimarg, centred on Shrinathji at Govardhan.
Varahadevaofficial
Harishena's minister, named in the Ajanta Cave 16 inscription.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Varahamihiraastronomer
Of Ujjain, about 505 to 587 CE; the Pancha Siddhantika and the Brihatsamhita.
Vararuchischolar
Author of the Prakrita Prakasha, the first Prakrit grammar.
Vasishthiputra Pulumaviking
Son of Gautamiputra, about 130 to 158 CE, who married a daughter of Rudradaman I; important for Amaravati.
Vasisthapriest
An important priest associated with Sudas, and one of the priestly families of the Family Books.
Vasubandhuphilosopher
About 320 to 400 CE; the Abhidharmakoshabhasya, then Yogacara under Asanga.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 10: The Gupta empire
Vasudeva Iking
The last great Kushana, about 190 to 230 CE.
Vasudeva Kanvaking
Minister who killed Devabhuti and founded the Kanva dynasty.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Vasumitramonk
Presided over the Sarvastivada Fourth Council under Kanishka.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Vatsabhattipoet
Composer of the Mandsaur inscription of the silk weavers' guild.
Vatsarajaking
About 775 to 805 CE; entered the Tripartite Struggle; defeated by Dhruva.
Vattagamani Abhayaking
Patron of the Theravada Fourth Council at Aluvihara.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Veera Ballala IIking
Hoysala, about 1173 to 1220 CE; the greatest extent of the kingdom; fought the Yadavas of Devagiri.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Veera Ballala IIIking
The last major Hoysala, about 1292 to 1342 CE; resisted Malik Kafur; the kingdom passed to Vijayanagara.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Vidyaranyasaint
Author of the Sarvadarshanasangraha and Panchadasi; head of the Sringeri matha only from about 1380 CE, so the legend that he blessed the foundation is a later tradition.
Vigraharaja IVking
Chahamana, about 1150 to 1164 CE; captured Delhi; a dramatist.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Vijayadityaking
About 696 to 733 CE; a major temple builder.
Vijayalayaking
About 848 to 871 CE; founder of the imperial Cholas; took Thanjavur.
Vijnanesvarascholar
Jurist at Vikramaditya VI's court; author of the Mitakshara.
Vikramaditya Iking
About 655 to 680 CE; reconquered Vatapi.
Vikramaditya IIking
About 733 to 744 CE; occupied Kanchipuram twice; the Pattadakal temples were built in his reign.
Vikramaditya VIking
About 1076 to 1126 CE; the Chalukya Vikrama Era of 1076.
Vima Kadphisesking
Kushana ruler, about 95 to 127 CE, who introduced gold coinage and showed strong Shaiva devotion.
Vima Taktoking
Kushana ruler, about 80 to 95 CE, who extended control deep into the subcontinent.
Vimala Shahminister
Chaulukya minister who built the Vimala Vasahi at Mount Abu in 1031.
Vindhyashaktiking
Founder of the Vakataka line, about 250 to 270 CE; described as a dvija in an Ajanta inscription.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Vira Narasimhaking
Founded the Tuluva dynasty in 1505 CE and ruled to 1509; credited with abolishing the marriage tax.
Vira Pandyaprince
A claimant in the Pandya succession war after Kulasekara; invited Malik Kafur in 1311 CE.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Virarajendraking
Won a major victory over the Western Chalukyas.
Virji Voramerchant
Of Surat; European factors estimated his capital at 80 lakh rupees, and he lent repeatedly to the English Company.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Vishnugopaking
Of Kanchi; among the kings of Dakshinapatha captured and released by Samudragupta.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Vishnuvardhanaking
Hoysala king who converted to Vaishnavism under Ramanuja.
Theme 12d: The Deccan: Chalukyas to YadavasTheme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Vishvamitraseer
A major seer associated in tradition with political conflict and patronage, and one of the priestly families of the Family Books.
Vyasatirthaphilosopher
A Dvaita philosopher of the 15th and 16th centuries, through whom Dvaita reached north Indian Bhakti.
Wang Xuanceenvoy
Chinese ambassador who found chaos after Harsha and raised an army from Nepal and Tibet.
Xerxes Iking
An Achaemenid ruler of Persia.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Xuanzangpilgrim
About 629 to 645 CE, under Harsha; the Da Tang Xiyu Ji.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
Yajnashri Satakarniking
The last powerful Satavahana, about 174 to 203 CE, whose coins bear a ship.
Yalduzgovernor
Ghor's ghulam at Ghazni; claimed Delhi after 1206, and his daughter married Aibak.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporaiking
Chera; praised in the Patitrupattu as a patron of bards.
Yasamonk
Raised the ten relaxations that led to the Second Council.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Yashodharmanking
Of the Aulikara family of Malwa; his Sondani pillars claim that Mihirakula bowed at his feet.
Yavaneshvarascholar
A Greek writer in India under Rudradaman who translated the Yavanajataka from Greek into Sanskrit.
Yudhishthilaking
A ruler of Kuru, said to be from the family of Yudhishthira.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Yusuf Adil Shahsultan
Bijapur, r. 1490 to 1510 CE; an Afaqi who claimed Ottoman descent; founder of the Adil Shahis, killed fighting Krishnadeva Raya's forces.
Zafar Khansultan
A Tank Rajput convert, Firuz Shah Tughlaq's governor of Gujarat, who took the title Muzaffar Shah in 1407.
Zain ul Abidinsultan
r. 1420 to 1470 CE; Bud Shah, the Akbar of Kashmir; abolished jizya, had works translated both ways, and brought crafts from Samarqand.
Ziauddin Baranihistorian
About 1285 to 1357 CE; wrote the Tarikh i Firuz Shahi and the Fatawa i Jahandari; to be read for his conservative bias.
Theme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M1: What "medieval India" means
Terms
Abbasid
The caliphate that rose from Khorasan, overthrew the Umayyads in 750 and built Baghdad in 762; the Mongols ended it in 1258.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Abhang
The Marathi devotional verse of the Varkari saints, from Namdev to Tukaram.
Abhidhamma Pitaka
The pitaka of seven books of systematic philosophy.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Achaemenid Empire
The Persian Empire relevant to Indian history, which rose in the sixth century BCE and became one of the largest of the ancient world.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Adhai din ka Jhonpra
The mosque built at Ajmer after the Ghurid conquest, the counterpart of the Quwwat ul Islam at Delhi.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Adivaraha
The primordial boar; Mihira Bhoja's title, after Vishnu's Varaha avatar.
Advaita
Shankaracharya's non dualism: the soul and Brahman are identical.
Afaqi
A recent immigrant to the Deccan from Persia, Iraq, Central Asia or Turkey, mostly Shia and Persian speaking; also called Gharbian or Pardesi.
Agama
The Jain texts, collectively also called the Siddhanta.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Agamas
The Sanskrit canon of the Nikaya schools, beside the Pali Tipitaka; for the Shvetambaras, their canon.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Agnikula
The twelfth century legend of four clans born from a fire pit at Mount Abu.
Ahimsa
Non violence, the central ethical principle of Jainism.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Ain i Akbari
Abul Fazl's administrative encyclopaedia of the Mughal system: provinces, revenues, army, court, religion, weights and measures.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M1: What "medieval India" means
Ajiva
Everything else: matter, space, time, and the media of motion and rest.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Akam
The inner poetry of love, with no named persons, where the tinai operates.
Alayavijnana
The store consciousness of Yogacara, carrying karmic seeds.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Altamgha
A jagir granted to Muslim nobles in their family towns or birthplaces, hereditary in intent.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Amaram
The territory assigned to a nayaka, whose revenue he held instead of a cash salary; the largest share of the land.
Amman shrine
A separate formal shrine for the goddess within the temple enclosure, standard from Vijayanagara times.
Amuktamalyada
Krishnadeva Raya's Telugu poem on the Alvar saint Andal, carrying the only political theory from a reigning south Indian emperor.
Anatman
No permanent self, also anatta; a major difference from many Upanishadic ideas.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Anda
The dome of a stupa, the egg, holding the relics.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Anekantavada
The Jain doctrine of many sided reality.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developmentsTheme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Aniconic
Showing the Buddha by symbols only, not in human form.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Anitya
Impermanence: everything changes.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Ankia Naat
Sankaradeva's one act devotional plays, performed as Bhaona with a Sutradhar narrating.
Antavasayin
Literally living at the end: people, such as Chandalas and shvapakas, supposed to live on the margins of settlements.
Antyaja
Those outside the four varnas, as Al Biruni describes them in the Kitab ul Hind.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Apabhramsha
The vernaculars that grew from Prakrit, the immediate ancestors of Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi and Punjabi; literally fallen off.
Aparigraha
Non possession, non attachment.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Apasmara
The dwarf of ignorance under the Nataraja's foot.
Araba
The Ottoman wagon laager: carts lashed together with bull hides, gaps for horsemen and mantelets for matchlockmen; Babur's Rumi device.
Arahant
An enlightened person who has achieved spiritual perfection; the Theravada ideal.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Ashrava
The influx of karma matter onto the soul.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Ashtachhap
The eight seals, the eight poets of the Pushtimarg organised by Vitthalnath, Surdas among them.
Ashtadiggajas
The eight elephants of the quarters: the eight Telugu poets of Krishnadeva Raya's court.
Ashtapradhan
Shivaji's council of eight ministers, instituted at his coronation in 1674.
Ashvamedha
The horse sacrifice, claiming unquestioned control over the area the royal horse ran through uninterrupted.
Astika
A school that accepts the authority of the Vedas; it does not simply mean theist.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Asuravijayin, lobhavijayin, dharmavijayin
The demonic conqueror who seizes and kills, the greedy one, and the righteous one satisfied with submission.
Avanisimha
Lion of the earth; the title Simhavishnu took after defeating the Kalabhras.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Ayagar
One of the twelve hereditary village functionaries, paid in tax free plots and shares of the harvest; the offices could be sold and mortgaged.
Ayas
A Rigvedic word that could mean copper, copper bronze, or metal in general; iron was later shyama or krishna ayas, the dark metal.
Ba shara and be shara
Sufis who observed the Shariat, the major orders, and those who did not, such as the Qalandars.
Bali
An offering or tribute; in a political context, a contribution to the ruler.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisationTheme 3: Vedic age
Banjar
Land uncultivated for five years or more, assessed at a concessional rate rising to the full.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Bargi giri
The guerrilla method of harassment, interception of supply and refusal of pitched battle, perfected by Malik Ambar.
Bargir
A cavalryman mounted and paid by his employer; Malik Ambar employed Maratha bargirs.
Barid
A postal and intelligence officer; Balban's and Alauddin's intelligence systems relied on barids and the secret munhiyans.
Barphukan
The Ahom viceroy of Lower Assam at Guwahati, an office created by Pratap Singha.
Batai
Crop sharing by heaps of the harvest, with khet batai dividing the sown field and lang batai the threshed grain.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Begarha
The name of Mahmud of Gujarat, read as be, two, and gadh, fort: the conqueror of Girnar and Champaner; or from his moustaches.
Begumpura
Ravidas's city without sorrow, where none is taxed, none owns property and all move freely.
Bhaga
A share of produce, often the royal share of agrarian output.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisationTheme 7: Mauryan empire
Bhagavata
A devotee of Vishnu or Vasudeva.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Bhakti
Devotion or loving attachment, from the root bhaj, to share or participate in.
Bhandaravada
Crown or treasury villages, held directly by the state.
Bherighosha and Dhammaghosha
Physical conquest and cultural conquest: after Kalinga, Ashoka turned from the first to the second.
Bhumija
A Nagara form with ornamental towers in a grid, in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
Biswa
A unit of land measurement in Alauddin Khalji's direct assessment, and the name of that system, which bypassed the zamindars.
Black and red ware
Distinctive black and red pottery with geometric designs, often in white, about 1300 to 900 BCE, spread across the subcontinent.
Bodhisattva
One who delays personal nirvana to remain in samsara and liberate all beings; the Mahayana ideal.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western Satraps
Borgeet
Sankaradeva's devotional songs in Brajavali, a literary language mixing Maithili and Assamese.
Brahmadeya
The south Indian term for a land grant to Brahmins.
Theme 12a: Understanding early medieval IndiaTheme M6: Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis
Brahman
Ultimate reality, the universal principle; not the same as the Brahmana varna.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Brahmana
Prose texts explaining rituals, showing the expansion of sacrificial religion and priestly authority.
Bud Shah
The great king: the name given to Zain ul Abidin of Kashmir.
Buddhapada
The Buddha's footprints, a symbol of the aniconic phase.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Buranji
An Ahom state chronicle, written in Tai Ahom and, from Suhungmung's reign, in Assamese as well.
But Shikan
The idol breaker: the title of Sikandar Shah of Kashmir, 1389 to 1413.
Carnelian
A hard reddish orange semiprecious stone, worked at Harappan sites into beads that reached Mesopotamia.
Cetiya
A reminder that evokes the Buddha and marks his presence after parinirvana.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Chachar
Land left fallow three or four years, assessed at a concessional rate rising to the full.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Chachnama
The chief account of the Arab conquest of Sindh, first in Arabic and put into Persian by Muhammad Ali Kufi of Uch in 1216; also the Fathnama i Sind.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Chahamana
The Rajput dynasty, also called the Chauhans, of Shakambhari, then Ajmer and Delhi, which ended with Prithviraj III in 1192.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Chaitya
A Buddhist prayer hall, usually apsidal at one end, with a stupa standing inside it as the object of worship.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Chakravala
The cyclic method; Bhaskara II's general algorithm for what is now called Pell's equation.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Chakravartin
A universal sovereign, the title Kharavela claimed.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and KharavelaTheme 12e: South India: Pallavas, Pandyas, Cholas
Chalcolithic
The stone and copper age, roughly 3000 to 1000 BCE in many regions, when people used both stone and copper tools.
Chalukya Vikrama era
The era Vikramaditya VI began in 1076 CE.
Chandella
The dynasty of Bundelkhand, ruling from Mahoba with the fort of Kalinjar; Paramardi was its king at the conquest.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Charan and bhat
The court bards who composed and kept Rajput heroic poetry.
Charbagh
The Timurid four part garden that Babur brought, the setting for every great Mughal tomb.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Chatra
The umbrellas above a stupa: honour and the protection of the Dharma.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Chaturanga
The four limbs of the army, and the game traced to this period that became chess.
Chaulukya
The dynasty of Gujarat, also called the Solankis, ruling from Anhilwara, whose army routed Ghor at Kasahrada in 1178.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Chauth and sardeshmukhi
The quarter and the further tenth of revenue that Shivaji claimed on territory outside his kingdom.
Chehra
A descriptive roll of each soldier, kept by the Diwan i Arz, introduced by Alauddin Khalji to stop impersonation at the muster.
Theme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperors
Chihalgani
The Forty: the council of forty Turkish nobles created by Iltutmish and broken by Balban.
Citadel
The raised, often fortified part of a Harappan city, which may have held public buildings, ritual or storage structures, or elite functions.
Coparcenary
The joint family whose members hold its property by birth.
Counterstruck coin
A coin struck again with a new image, as Gautamiputra did to Nahapana's coins.
Dagh
The branding of army horses, introduced by Alauddin Khalji, so that cheaper animals could not be substituted at the muster.
Theme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperors
Dagh and huliya
The branding of horses with the state mark and the recording of each trooper's description, revived by Mahmud Gawan to stop false musters.
Dahsala
Todar Mal's settlement of about 1580, assessing revenue on the average yield of the past 10 years.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Dakshina
The gift given to priests; land was never given in the Early Vedic age, but it was in the Later Vedic age.
Dakshinapatha
The great southern trade route, which the Satavahanas controlled.
Dandanayaka
A Vijayanagara commander and administrator, under whom the army served.
Dantakara
An ivory worker, named among the donors at Bharhut.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Dargah and urs
The tomb shrine that grows round a saint after death, and his death anniversary kept as a wedding with God.
Dasa and ahitaka
A slave, and a person pledged to a creditor when contracting a debt.
Dastur
A revenue circle with its own crop rates, so that fertile and poor districts were not assessed alike.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Dayabhaga
Jimutavahana's law, followed in Bengal and Assam instead of the Mitakshara.
Deccani
A Muslim long settled in the Deccan, largely Sunni and Dakhni speaking, with allied Habshi elements.
Devadana
A land grant to a temple, its revenue supporting priests, musicians, dancers and cooks.
Theme 12a: Understanding early medieval IndiaTheme M6: Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis
Devadasi
Servant of the deity; women attached to temples as dancers and musicians.
Devanampiya Piyadasi
The names Ashoka uses for himself in most of his inscriptions, known to be his from the Sri Lankan Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa.
Dhamma
Ashoka's moral law of ethical conduct and righteous living, broader than Buddhism.
Dharmachakra Pravartana
The turning of the wheel of dharma, the Buddha's first sermon at Sarnath.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Dharmamaharaja
The title of the early Pallava Sivaskandavarman.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Dharmasthiya and kantakashodhana
Courts for civil matters, and for criminal cases.
Dharmasutra
One of the earliest manuals of Hindu law, duty and custom, known as dharma.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Dhimmi
A protected non Muslim subject who paid the jizya and kharaj, kept his religion and was exempt from military service; Qasim applied it in Sindh.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Digambara
Sky clad; the sect whose senior monks go naked.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Din i Ilahi
Akbar's own syncretic religious philosophy.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M1: What "medieval India" means
Dinar
The Kushana gold coin, into which Roman gold was likely recoined.
Dinara
The Gupta gold coin, its name from the Roman denarius through the Kushanas.
Diwan i Arz
The military department, for recruitment, pay and equipment of the army; Alauddin's dagh and chehra worked through it.
Diwan i Wizarat
The revenue department, which collected and distributed revenue; the most important body after the sultan.
Do chala
The curved two sided Bengali roof, with the four sided chau chala, borrowed from the bamboo and thatch hut.
Dravyavana and hastivana
Material forests giving timber and metals, and elephant forests.
Drishtivada
The twelfth text of the Dvadashanga, lost and never recovered.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Du aspa sih aspa
Of two horses and three horses: Jahangir's designation of part of a sawar rank, paid at double the rate for double the troopers.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Dukkha
Suffering or unsatisfactoriness, the first Noble Truth.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Dvadashanga
The twelve texts into which Mahavira's teaching was organised.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Dvaita
Madhvacharya's dualism: God, souls and matter are eternally distinct.
Dvija
Twice born; Vindhyashakti is so described in an Ajanta inscription.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Ekarat
The sole sovereign, the title Mahapadma Nanda took.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Ekasarana Nama Dharma
Sankaradeva's teaching in Assam: shelter in one.
Ekayana
The one vehicle of the Lotus Sutra: a single path to Buddhahood for all.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Ekendriya
A being of one sense, touch only.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Epigraphy
The study of inscriptions: writing engraved on durable material such as stone, pillars, copper plates, temple walls, caves and seals.
Faience
An artificial paste of ground quartz, glazed and fired to a glassy blue or green finish, used for beads, bangles and small figurines; not a natural stone.
Family Books
Mandalas 2 to 7 of the Rigveda, the oldest core, associated with the priestly families of Vishvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja and Vasistha.
Fana and baqa
Annihilation of the self in God, and subsistence in God thereafter.
Fatawa i Alamgiri
A digest of Hanafi jurisprudence for qazis, compiled for Aurangzeb in 1667 to 1675; not a new code.
Feigned retreat
A horse archers' tactic of seeming to flee so that the enemy breaks formation in pursuit, then turning on him; Ghor used it at Tarain in 1192.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Food producing economy
Producing food through farming and animal domestication, which began in the Neolithic.
Futuh
Unsolicited charity, which the Chishtis accepted while refusing endowments.
Gahadavala
The dynasty of Kanauj and Varanasi, whose last king Jayachandra was killed at Chandawar in 1194.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Gana sangha
A republic like, oligarchic polity, such as the Vajji confederacy of eight clans and the Mallas.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Ganadhara
One of Mahavira's eleven disciples who preserved his teaching.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Gandhika
A perfumer, named among the donors at Bharhut.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and KharavelaTheme 8c: The Satavahanas
Gangaikonda Chola
The Chola who took the Ganges; Rajendra I's title.
Gangavadi
The land of the Western Gangas, southern Karnataka.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Gathasaptashati
An anthology of 700 love poems in Maharashtri Prakrit, attributed to Hala.
Ghalla bakhshi
Crop sharing: the state took a share of the actual produce rather than a cash assessment.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Ghazi
A warrior for the faith; Mahmud of Ghazni styled himself one.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperors
Ghulam
A slave soldier, bought as a boy, trained to fight and loyal to his master alone; Turkish ghulams rose to command and then to rule.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Gommateshvara
The Jain monolith at Shravanabelagola, about 17 metres high, of about 981 CE.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Gotra
Literally the place where the whole clan's cattle were kept; later, descent from a common ancestor.
Grahana moksha anugraha
Capture and release: his policy towards the kings of Dakshinapatha.
Grihyasutra
A text giving detailed guidelines on Vedic domestic rituals for householders.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Griva
The neck below the crowning dome of a Dravida vimana.
Guishuang
The Kushanas' name in Chinese sources.
Hadith
The reported sayings of the Prophet Muhammad; with the Sunna, the second source of guidance after the Quran.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Harivijaya
Sarvasena's Prakrit kavya.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Harmika
The square railing above the dome, the abode of the gods.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Hathigumpha
Literally elephant cave: Kharavela's inscription on Udayagiri hill near Bhubaneswar.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Hellenistic
Of Greek history, art and culture, as in the Hellenistic zones left in Afghanistan, Gandhara and northwest Pakistan.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Hijra
The Prophet Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Yathrib, renamed Medina, in 622; year one of the lunar Islamic calendar.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Hinayana
The label later Mahayana writers gave the early schools.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Hindush
The province connected with India in Achaemenid usage, from Sindhu, the Indus.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Hiranyagarbha
A ritual of universal kingship, performed by Dantidurga at Ujjain.
Historiography
The way history is written: who writes it, what questions they ask, which sources they prioritise and what interpretation they produce.
Hundi
A bill of exchange that let long distance trade move without moving bullion.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Hydaspes
The Greek name of the Jhelum, where Porus fought Alexander in 326 BCE.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Ibadat Khana
The house of worship at Fatehpur Sikri, built in 1575, where Akbar held debates, opened to all faiths in 1578.
Iqta
An assignment of land revenue to a military officer or administrator in lieu of salary, from which he kept a set force; the Sultanate's primary administrative mechanism.
Theme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme M1: What "medieval India" means
Jagadguru
Teacher of the world: Jagadguru Badshah was the name of Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur.
Jagir
The revenue of a territory assigned to a noble in place of a cash salary, transferable and not hereditary.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Janapada
Literally the foothold of a people, or the territory of a tribe or people: the shift from tribal identity to territorial political units.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Jaribana and muhasilana
Sher Shah's fixed charges: a survey cess of 2.5 per cent and a collection charge of 5 per cent.
Jataka
A story of a previous birth of the Buddha.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Jauhar and saka
The collective self immolation of Rajput women when defeat was certain, and the last charge of the men in saffron.
Theme 12c: The Rajput kingdomsTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
Jharokha darshan
The emperor's daily appearance to the public at a palace window, abolished by Aurangzeb in 1669.
Jital
The standard copper coin of the Sultanate, introduced with the tanka by Iltutmish.
Jiva
Soul or sentient substance, infinite in number, eternal, conscious.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Jiva and ajiva
The soul or living substance, and non living substance, the central Jain distinction.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Jizya
A tax per head on adult male non Muslims under Muslim rule, the price of the protection covenant.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasionTheme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperors
Jya
Aryabhata's term for the sine, which passed through Arabic into the Latin sinus.
Jyotirlinga
One of the twelve most sacred Shiva shrines, of the pillar of light; Somnath is one.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Jyotishi
The hereditary tradition of astronomers and mathematicians within which Bhaskara II worked.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Kaaba
The sanctuary at Mecca, where the Arabs worshipped tribal gods before Islam; cleared of its idols when the Prophet Muhammad entered Mecca in 630.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Kabayi
The Islamicate tunic worn with a conical cap at the Vijayanagara court.
Kadaswaram
The revenue survey conducted by Kulottunga I.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Kala thoranam
The carved stone gateways of the Kakatiya fort at Warangal; kala means art.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Kalabhra
The power in the south whom Simhavishnu defeated, opening the imperial Pallava phase.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Kalyana mandapa
A separate open pillared hall for the annual ritual marriage of the deity and consort, a distinct Vijayanagara addition.
Kamarupa
The kingdom of Assam around Guwahati, where Bakhtiyar Khalji's army was destroyed in 1206.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Kankut
Assessment by appraisal: the yield estimated by inspecting the standing crop.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Karkhana
An imperial or noble workshop making textiles, arms, jewellery and luxury goods, under the Mir Saman.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Karma
Action and its moral and spiritual consequence; in Jainism, a material bondage on the soul.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Karori
An official appointed to collect a crore of dams and to check the figures of the qanungos.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Kathasaritsagara
The Ocean of Story, Somadeva's Sanskrit story collection of about 1070, in 124 chapters and about 21,000 verses.
Kathavatthu
The Third Council's refutation of 219 wrong views; the fifth book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Kavirajamarga
Amoghavarsha I's work, the earliest surviving literary work in Kannada.
Kavitrayam
The trio of the greatest poets of Telugu literature, of whom Tikkana is one.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Kayotsarga
The standing posture of a Tirthankara image.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Khalifa
Caliph: successor or deputy of the Messenger, the political and community leader of the Muslims, not a prophet.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Khalisa
Land whose revenue went straight to the imperial treasury, as against land assigned in jagir.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Khalsa
The order founded by Guru Gobind Singh at Anandpur on Baisakhi 1699.
Khanqah
A Sufi hospice giving food, shelter and guidance to visitors of every background; Moinuddin Chishti's at Ajmer was the first important Chishti khanqah in India.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Kharaj
Land revenue on agricultural produce, paid by Muslim and non Muslim cultivators alike.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Kharijite
One of those who rejected the arbitration after Siffin and broke away from Ali; one of them killed Ali in 661.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Kharosthi
A script used in the northwest beside Brahmi, and on bilingual coins.
Khorasan
The old region of northeast Iran, with Herat and Balkh in Afghanistan and Merv in Turkmenistan; the Abbasids rose from it.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Khut, muqaddam and chaudhary
Local revenue intermediaries: the khut a larger landowner, the muqaddam a village headman, the chaudhary a district leader.
Kirtan and sankirtan
Devotional singing, and congregational singing in procession, which Chaitanya took through the streets.
Kitab i Navras
The Book of Nine Rasas, Ibrahim Adil Shah II's work on music in Dakhni, opening with a poem to Saraswati.
Kitab ul Hind
The Book on India, Al Biruni's study of India in eighty chapters, written in Arabic about 1030.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Kshatrapa and Mahakshatrapa
The satrap and the great satrap: the titles of the Western Satraps.
Kshatriya dharma
The warrior's duty to protect the people and fight to the death rather than surrender.
Kul bhoomi
The ancestral land of a Rajput clan, held sacred and worth dying to defend.
Kumaramatya
The highest cadre of officer, with an office of his own; known from six Vaishali seals.
Lakshana
One of the thirty two marks of a mahapurusha.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Lal Kot
The fort of Delhi built by the Tomaras, remembered under their king Anangapala.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Lanchha
A Tirthankara's emblem on the pedestal.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Langar
The free communal kitchen of the Sikh Gurus, which enacts the rejection of caste.
Lapis lazuli
A deep blue semiprecious stone, obtained from Afghanistan, whose presence at Harappan sites is evidence of long distance trade.
Lichchhavi dauhitra
Daughter's son of the Lichchhavis, Samudragupta's description of himself.
Lilavati
The arithmetic and geometry part of the Siddhantashiromani, named after Bhaskara II's daughter.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Lost wax casting
A method of casting metal in which a wax model is coated in clay, the wax melted out and molten metal poured into the hollow left behind, used for the bronze Dancing Girl.
Madanika
A bracket figure of a celestial woman in dance, music or daily life, at Belur, Halebid and the Ramappa temple.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Madhyama pratipad
The Middle Path, rejecting both luxury and extreme asceticism.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Madhyamaka
Nagarjuna's philosophy of emptiness.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western Satraps
Mahabhinishkramana
The Great Renunciation, the Buddha's leaving of worldly life.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Mahajanapada
A great janapada, a large territorial state; by the sixth century BCE some janapadas had grown into them, and the Anguttara Nikaya lists sixteen.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Mahamastakabhisheka
The anointing of the Gommateshvara every twelve years.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Mahamoksha Parishad
Harsha's quinquennial assembly at Prayag.
Mahanavami
The nine day festival at which nayakas renewed their allegiance and paid their dues, so an administrative event as well as a religious one.
Mahaparinirvana
The death of the Buddha, at Kushinagara.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Mahapradhana
The chief minister over the pradhanas, of whom Timmarusu is the best known.
Maharajadhiraja
Great king of kings; the imperial title first taken by Chandragupta I.
Mahasanghika
The other side of the first schism; a precursor of Mahayana tendencies.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Mahashilakantaka
An engine to throw big stones, of which Ajatashatru is the presumed inventor.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Mahavibhasha
The standard Sarvastivada commentary, compiled at the Kashmir council.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Mahavihara
A great monastery, such as Somapura at Paharpur.
Mahayana
The Great Vehicle, a Buddhism of universal salvation for all beings, not just monks.
Mahzar
The declaration of 1579 that made Akbar Imam i Adil, entitled to choose between interpretations where the mujtahids differ.
Malfuzat
The recorded conversations of a Sufi shaikh, such as the Fawaid ul Fuad of Nizamuddin Auliya.
Malik ut Tujjar
Prince of Merchants, the title given to Mahmud Gawan in 1459.
Mandala
A Vajrayana technique, beside mantra and mudra.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 3: Vedic age
Manjaniq
A catapult or trebuchet for breaching walls, used at Debal in 711.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Mansab
A place or position: a numerical rank that fixed a Mughal official's status, salary and the armed retainers he kept.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Mansabdari
The Mughal administrative and revenue system, run by officials of all religions; one of the new institutions that built on Indian traditions.
Mashrut
A conditional rank, or jagir, that raised a mansabdar's sawar temporarily, used by Aurangzeb.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Matha
A monastic centre; Shankaracharya's four at Sringeri, Puri, Dwaraka and Jyotirmath.
Matronymic
A name taken from the mother, as in Gautamiputra and Vasishthiputra.
Matsyanyaya
The law of the fishes, big fish eating small; the anarchy in Bengal before Gopala's election.
Megalith
A grave encircled by big stones, the main evidence of the phase before the Sangam age.
Megaliths
Graves encircled by big stones and mostly located outside the settlement area, from which the Megalithic people of the peninsula are known.
Meluhha
A name in Mesopotamian records, often identified with the Harappan region.
Miri piri
Guru Hargobind's doctrine of temporal and spiritual authority, taken up after Guru Arjan's death.
Mitakshara
Vijnanesvara's commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti; joint family property belongs to the coparcenary by birth.
Mleccha
Sanskrit for foreigners outside the Brahmanical order, used of the Arabs and later the Turks; ritual outsider status more than moral inferiority.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Mohaniya
The deluding karma, the most dangerous of the eight.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Moksha
Liberation from the cycle of birth and death; in Jainism, the soul's liberation from karmic bondage.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Mudra
A gesture of the hands: dhyana, bhumisparsha, dharmachakra, abhaya, varada and vitarka.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Muhtasib
A censor of public morals, appointed by Aurangzeb.
Mujtahid
A jurist qualified to interpret the law; the mahzar named Akbar one.
Mummudi Chola
Chola of the three crowns; Rajaraja I's title.
Muqti and wali
The provincial governor assigned an iqta or province by the sultan, responsible for order and for remitting revenue to the centre.
Nadu
A cluster of villages with a common identity, the key local unit.
Theme 8d: The Sangam ageTheme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Nagara shreshthin
The chief banker of the town, on the district advisory council.
Nagaraka
The cultivated city gentleman of the Kamasutra, with his sixty four arts.
Nalayira Divya Prabandham
The four thousand sacred verses of the Alvars.
Nam japna, kirat karni, vand chakna
Guru Nanak's 3 pillars: remembrance of the divine name, earning by honest labour, and sharing with others.
Namghar
The village prayer hall of Assam, created by Sankaradeva, which also served as the village assembly.
Nandagartha
A treasure or ritual object taken from Kalinga by the Nandas, which Kharavela claimed to have recovered.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Nanjai
Wet, irrigated land, in the Vijayanagara classification of land.
Nasaq
A rough assessment from the past revenue records of an area, widely used in Bengal.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Nastika
A school that does not accept the authority of the Vedas; it does not simply mean atheist.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Nayaka
A military chief assigned an amaram, bound to keep troops for the king and pay him tribute.
Nayavada
The doctrine of partial standpoints.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Nigama
A market town or commercial settlement.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Nikaya
A book of the Buddhist Pitakas, many written in Pali; the Sutta Pitaka contains five.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Nikaya Buddhism
The early schools after the first schism.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Nirguna
Worship of a formless absolute, without image or incarnation; it does not mean atheist.
Nirjara
Burning off accumulated karma through tapas.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Nirvana
The extinction of craving; liberation from suffering and rebirth.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Niyati
Absolute determinism, the Ajivika belief that everything is predetermined.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Northern Black Polished Ware
NBPW: a fine, glossy pottery associated with urban growth, the second urbanisation and urban elite culture.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisationTheme 1: Prehistory
Numismatics
The study of coins, a major source especially for political and economic history.
Orugallu
The Kakatiya capital, also Ekashilanagara, the city of the single rock; modern Warangal.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Paik
An able bodied non noble male in the Ahom kingdom, owing corvee labour and military service for rent free wet rice land.
Painted Grey Ware
Fine grey pottery painted with black geometric patterns, about 1200 to 600 BCE, found in northwestern India and the Gangetic plain; it often overlaps with the early Vedic period.
Palai
The tinai of the wasteland, a condition rather than a zone: separation by journey.
Pana and mashaka
The silver punch marked coin with peacock, hill and crescent, and the copper coin.
Pana or karshapana
An early unit of currency, or coin.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Panchabheda
The five differences of Dvaita: God and souls, God and matter, souls and matter, soul and soul, and thing and thing.
Panchayatana
A temple plan with corner shrines around the main shrine, as at Deogarh.
Parama bhagavata
Supreme devotee of Vishnu; the standard religious self description of Gupta kings.
Parauti
Land left fallow for a time to recover, cultivated once in two years, at the full rate when cultivated.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Paricharikrita
Reduced to servitude: his policy towards the forest kingdoms.
Paryaya
The rotation in which the eight mutts take turns, two years each, to manage the Udupi Krishna temple.
Paryushana
The occasion at which the Kalpasutra is recited publicly.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Pativedaka
A special reporter who kept the king informed of public opinion, with the pulisani.
Patricide
The killing of one's father, as Ajatashatru killed Bimbisara, a rare case in ancient India.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Patta and qabuliyat
The title deed given to the peasant stating his holding and dues, and the deed of acceptance he gave in return.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
A first century CE account of India's trade with Rome and its western ports.
Pietra dura
Parchin kari: an inlay of cornelian, jasper, lapis, onyx and topaz in marble, first used extensively at Itmad ud Daula's tomb.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Pir and murid
Master and disciple; a khalifa is a disciple authorised to initiate others.
Polaj
Land cultivated every year and never left fallow, assessed at the full rate.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Prabhamandala
The ring of fire around the dancing Nataraja.
Prachanna bauddha
Crypto Buddhist; Shankaracharya's charge against schools such as Samkhya.
Pradakshina patha
The circumambulatory path, walked clockwise.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Prapatti
Complete surrender to Vishnu as the path to liberation.
Prasabhoddharana
Violent extermination: Samudragupta's policy towards the kings of Aryavarta.
Prasasti
A eulogistic inscription that glorifies a ruler, useful but given to exaggeration.
Prashasti
A royal eulogy, such as the Hathigumpha inscription recording Kharavela's deeds year by year.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Prasthanatrayi
The three sources of Vedanta, the Brahmasutras, the ten principal Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita, on all of which a Vedanta philosopher was expected to comment.
Pratihara
Doorkeeper; the Pratiharas claimed descent from Lakshmana, doorkeeper to Rama.
Pratimoksha
A list of transgressions, and the atonement for them, in the Vinaya Pitaka.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Pratityasamutpada
Dependent origination: everything arises in dependence on causes and conditions.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developmentsTheme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Pratyaksha
Direct perception, for Charvaka the main valid source of knowledge.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Prehistory
The period of the human past for which there are no written records, known mainly through archaeology.
Presentism
Judging the past only by present political concerns.
Prithviraj Raso
The epic on Prithviraj III attributed to Chand Bardai, in Braj Bhasha, an early vernacular work of contested historicity.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdomsTheme 12c: The Rajput kingdoms
Prithviraja Vijaya
Jayanaka's Sanskrit poem from Prithviraj III's court, contemporary but breaking off before Tarain.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Propylon
A huge arched screen rising in front of a mosque's dome and hiding it, the signature of Sharqi building.
Protohistory
A period for which writing exists but is not fully understood or deciphered, such as the Harappan civilisation.
Pudgala
Matter; karma pudgala is karma as material particles.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Punch marked coins
Early coins marked with symbols punched onto metal; they show monetisation, trade and an exchange economy.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Puram
The outer poetry of war, death, praise and generosity of kings, with named kings and warriors.
Pure Land
A Buddha field; rebirth in Amitabha's Pure Land through faith.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Purusha Sukta
A hymn of the tenth Mandala describing the cosmic being Purusha, from whose sacrifice the world and the four varnas emerged.
Pushtimarg
Vallabhacharya's path of grace, pushti: joyful service to the child Krishna, with the householder's life as the path.
Qadi
An Islamic judge administering sharia for Muslim subjects; the chief qadi, the qadi ul qudat, was an important state official.
Qila Rai Pithora
Rai Pithora's fort: Prithviraj III's Delhi around Lal Kot, where the Quwwat ul Islam was built.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Qiladar
A fort commander appointed and paid by the Bahmani centre under Mahmud Gawan's reform.
Quran
The revelations the Prophet Muhammad received, given their standard written form under the third caliph Uthman.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Quraysh
The leading tribe of Mecca, into whose Banu Hashim clan the Prophet Muhammad was born; its leaders opposed his preaching.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Quwwat ul Islam
Might of Islam: the first mosque at Delhi, begun about 1193 under Aibak, built from the pillars of 27 Hindu and Jain temples.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Rajan
The Early Vedic tribal leader, not yet a territorial monarch; hereditary but not absolute.
Rajatarangini
The River of Kings, Kalhana's Sanskrit chronicle of Kashmir, about 1148, remarkable for its source criticism.
Rajput
The warrior clans that held north and west India from about 900 to 1200 CE.
Ramappa
The popular name of the Rudreshvara temple at Palampet, taken from its architect.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Rashidun
The rightly guided: the first four caliphs, chosen by the community, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, 632 to 661.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Rathamusala
A scythed or maced chariot, of which Ajatashatru is the presumed inventor.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Ratnatraya
The three gems of early Kannada literature: Pampa, Ponna and Ranna.
Ray
Sher Shah's schedule of crop rates fixing the demand per bigha for each crop; the ancestor of Todar Mal's dastur ul amal.
Raya
The emperor of Vijayanagara, holding absolute executive, judicial and legislative authority and acting as the highest court of appeal.
Raya gopuram
The colossal plastered brick and stucco entrance tower on a temple's enclosure wall, dwarfing the vimana, popularised under Krishnadeva Raya.
Razmnama
The Book of War: the Mahabharata in Persian, made by Akbar's translation bureau in 1584 to 1586.
Rihla
The Travels: Ibn Battuta's account of India under Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Rishi order
The Kashmiri order founded by Nund Rishi, fusing Sufism with pre Islamic Kashmiri asceticism.
Rita
The order of the universe, of the sacrifice, and the moral order that people should follow.
Rupiya
Sher Shah's silver coin of 178 grains, the ancestor of the modern rupee.
Sabha
The assembly of a Brahmin grant village.
Theme 12e: South India: Pallavas, Pandyas, CholasTheme 3: Vedic age
Sadak i Azam
The great road from Sonargaon in Bengal to the Indus at Attock, rebuilt by Sher Shah on the ancient Uttarapatha.
Sadhukkadi
The mixed speech of wandering ascetics, in which Kabir composed.
Saguna
Worship of God with attributes, in a name and a form such as Rama or Krishna.
Sama
Listening: the Sufi practice of devotional music and song, used by the Chishtis and opposed by orthodox scholars.
Theme M9: The Bhakti and Sufi movementsTheme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526
Samanta
A subordinate chief holding land in exchange for military service and tribute; the source of the next dynasty when central power weakened.
Theme 12c: The Rajput kingdomsTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
Sampradaya and panth
A sect with a line of teachers, and the following of one saint, such as the Kabirpanth or the Dadupanth.
Samrat
Emperor; taken by Pravarasena I alone among the Vakatakas, the others using Maharaja.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Samsara
The cycle of birth, death and rebirth.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Samvara
Stopping fresh karma from entering.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Sangam
An assembly or academy; tradition holds three assemblies of Tamil poets under the Pandyas.
Sangat and pangat
The congregation, and sitting in a single row without regard to caste.
Sangiti
A council: an assembly convened to recite, verify and codify the teaching.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Sanstha and sanchara
Stationary spies posted in one region, and wandering spies.
Sant
The name used for the Nirguna poet saints of the north, such as Kabir, Ravidas and Nanak.
Sapta Sindhu
The land of seven rivers, the Rigveda's name for the Early Vedic region, mostly modern Punjab and Sindh.
Saptanga rajya
The Arthashastra's state of seven limbs: svami, amatya, janapada, durga, kosha, danda and mitra.
Sarai
A rest house on the road; Sher Shah's 1,700 had separate lodging for Hindus and Muslims and doubled as postal relay stations.
Sarraf
A money changer and banker who tested and valued coin, took deposits and issued the hundi.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Sarvastivada
An important early Buddhist school, systematised at the fourth council.
Satrap
A governor of a province of the Persian Empire; Alexander also reinstated Porus as satrap.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Satrapy
A province of the Persian Empire governed by a satrap; Gandhara became one under Darius I.
Theme 5: Persian and Greek invasions, and the rise of Magadha
Sattra
A Vaishnava monastery and cultural centre in Assam, created by Sankaradeva.
Sattra and Namghar
The two institutions of Sankaradeva's movement, which carried both worship and village self government into modern Assam.
Sawar
The number of horsemen a mansabdar had to maintain, equal to or less than his zat.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Second urbanisation
The return of towns and cities in the Ganga valley and beyond, about 600 to 300 BCE, after the Harappan cities.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Sekhari
A Nagara form with miniature shikharas clustered round the main one, as at Khajuraho.
Theme 12c: The Rajput kingdomsTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
Setubandha
Pravarasena II's Maharashtri Prakrit kavya on Rama's bridge to Lanka, also called Ravanavaha.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Shadgunya
The six policies of the vijigishu: sandhi, vigraha, asana, yana, samshraya and dvaidhibhava.
Shadiabad
The city of joy: Hoshang Shah's name for Mandu, the capital of Malwa.
Shahana i Mandi
The market controller Alauddin Khalji appointed to enforce his fixed prices, the office that made the four markets work.
Shaka era
The era beginning in 78 CE, the basis of the Indian national calendar.
Shariat, tariqat, haqiqat, marifat
The 4 rising stages of the Sufi path: the law, the path, the reality and gnosis; the first is never discarded.
Sharqi
Of the East: the Jaunpur dynasty, named from Malik Sarwar's title Malik us Sharq, Lord of the East.
Shashmaha
Six monthly: Shah Jahan's term for a jagir yielding half its jama, so its holder's pay was counted as six months.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Shia
The party of Ali: those who held that leadership of the Muslims belonged to Ali's line; Husayn's death at Karbala is their central tragedy.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Shiraz i Hind
The Shiraz of the East: Jaunpur under Ibrahim Shah Sharqi, a centre of jurisprudence, Persian letters and Sufism.
Shramana
A renunciant or wandering seeker outside the orthodox Vedic sacrificial order.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developmentsTheme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Shreni
A guild of merchants, artisans or traders that issued seals, made rules and acted as a bank.
Theme 10: The Gupta empireTheme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Shrivatsa
A symbol of the Buddha's presence in the aniconic phase.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Shruti
Literally 'that which has been heard': the status of the Vedas, thought to embody an eternal, self existent truth realised by the rishis.
Shunyanivesha
Settling unoccupied land with new villages of 100 to 500 families, mostly Shudras.
Shunyata
Emptiness: all phenomena lack inherent existence.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western Satraps
Shvetambara
White clad; the sect whose monks wear white.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Siddhantashiromani
The Crown of Astronomical Treatises, Bhaskara II's work in four parts.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
Siddhashila
The apex of the universe, to which the freed soul rises.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Sijda and paibos
Prostration before the sultan and kissing his feet, the court ceremonial Balban insisted on.
Silsila
The chain of spiritual descent from the Prophet Muhammad through successive masters, which makes an order an order.
Sista
Vijayanagara land revenue, nominally one sixth of produce, with rates that varied sharply in practice.
Smriti
Literally 'remembered': a category of texts different from shruti, including the Vedanga, Puranas, epics, Dharmashastra and Nitishastra.
Soak pit
A covered pit into which household waste water drained and soaked away into the ground, part of the Harappan drainage arrangement.
Source
Any material from which we learn about the past.
Steatite
A soft, easily carved stone, also called soapstone, which hardens when fired, used by the Harappans for seals and beads.
Stellate plan
The star shaped plan of the Hoysala temples.
Sthaviravada
The side of the first schism that continued as Theravada; Sthaviravada is the Sanskrit name.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Stridhana
A woman's own property in gifts and ornaments, protected in the Smritis.
Stupa
A reliquary mound over the Buddha's relics.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Sulh i Kul
Peace with all: Akbar's policy of a composite religious culture.
Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperorsTheme M1: What "medieval India" means
Sultan
Power, authority: the title of a ruler holding power in the caliph's name; Mahmud of Ghazni was the first ruler called Sultan.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Sunna
The practice of the Prophet Muhammad; with the Hadith, the second source of guidance after the Quran.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Sunni
The majority of Muslims, who accepted the caliphs chosen by the community as legitimate.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Sutta Pitaka
The pitaka of the five Nikayas.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Svabhava
Inherent existence, which Madhyamaka denies to everything.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Svatantra and paratantra
Independent and dependent: in Dvaita, Vishnu alone is independent, and all else depends on him.
Swargadeo
The dynastic style of the Ahom kings, from Suhungmung's Hindu title Swarganarayan.
Swayamvara
A ceremony at which a princess chose her husband from assembled suitors, as Samyukta does in the Prithviraj Raso.
Syadvada
The Jain doctrine of conditioned predication: truth seen from a standpoint.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developmentsTheme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Tamgha
A stamp duty on goods; Babur abolished it for Muslims before Khanwa, and Jahangir's ordinances forbade it.
Tanha
Craving, also trishna, the cause of suffering in the second Noble Truth.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Tanka
The standard silver coin of the Sultanate, introduced by Iltutmish; also written taka, later the currency name of Bangladesh.
Tankha
The ordinary jagir, given in lieu of salary and transferable normally every three to four years.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Tantra and avapa
Internal administration and inter state relations, two subjects of the Arthashastra.
Tapas
Austerity, whose heat burns karma matter.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Taqavi
A loan advanced to peasants for implements, seed and animals in need, recovered in easy instalments.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Tarafdar
The governor of a Bahmani province, a taraf, holding revenue, military and civil authority.
Tarain
The field near Thanesar, about 110 km north of Delhi, where Prithviraj III won in 1191 and lost in 1192.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Tasawwuf
Sufism itself, a name drawn from suf, wool, from safa, purity, or from the people of the bench by the Prophet Muhammad's mosque.
Tauhid i Ilahi
Abul Fazl's term for Akbar's elite discipleship order of 1582, later called the Din i Ilahi.
Tawarikh
Chronicles: court histories in Persian by official historians, the dominant historical writing of the Sultanate and Mughal periods.
Tawhid
The oneness of God, at the centre of the Prophet Muhammad's preaching.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Tengri
The sky, worshipped by the Turks of the steppe before Buddhism, Manichaeism and then Islam reached them.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Tevaram
The hymns of the Nayanmars, the first seven books of the Tirumurai.
Therigatha
Songs of Buddhist nuns, describing women's experience of renunciation; the Theragatha holds the songs of monks.
Theme 4: Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and the second urbanisation
Tinai
A landscape zone of Sangam poetry, linked to plants, animals, seasons and a human emotion.
Tipitaka
The Pali canon of three pitakas.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Tirthankara
A ford maker, one who shows the crossing over the river of worldly existence; there are 24 in each major cycle of time.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Tirumurai
The Tamil Shaiva canon of twelve books, compiled in the Chola period.
Tomara
The rulers of Delhi, builders of Lal Kot, who stayed on as Chahamana vassals after Vigraharaja IV took Delhi.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Tondaimandalam
The Pallava land of northern Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Torana
A gateway of a stupa, usually four, carrying the richest sculpture.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Transoxiana
Mawarannahr, the land beyond the Oxus: Uzbekistan and Tajikistan today, with Bukhara and Samarkand.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Trika
Kashmir Shaivism, a non dualist tradition holding consciousness, Shiva, to be the ultimate reality; systematised by Abhinavagupta.
Trikaya
The Mahayana three bodies: Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Tripartite Struggle
The contest of the Palas, Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas for Kanauj, about 750 to 900 CE.
Tulughma
The flanking manoeuvre that envelops both flanks at once, with which Babur crushed Ibrahim Lodi's army at Panipat.
Theme M5: The Delhi Sultanate: five dynasties, 1206 to 1526Theme M8a: The Mughal empire: the emperors
Turushka
Sanskrit for the Turks, as in the Kanai Barasi inscription of 1206.
Theme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Turushkadanda
A tax named in the Gahadavala grants whose purpose is debated: a levy to fight the Turks, or to pay them.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Ulema
Islamic scholars trained in sharia and theology, who gave the sultan legitimacy and administered Islamic law for Muslims.
Umayyad
The hereditary caliphate Muawiya founded at Damascus in 661, which sent the Sindh expedition and fell to the Abbasids in 750.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Umma
The community of believers; the first Muslim community was the one the Prophet Muhammad led at Medina.
Theme M2: The advent of Islam and the first Turkish invasion
Upanayana
The initiation ceremony allowed to the top three varnas, who were called dvija, twice born.
Upanishad
Philosophical teachings stressing knowledge, the self (Atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman).
Ur
A village, and the assembly of its adult male residents.
Ushnisha
The cranial protuberance, signifying knowledge.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Vaidarbhi riti
The Vidarbha style of Sanskrit composition, marked by clarity, sweetness and restraint.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Vajapeya
A chariot race in which the royal chariot was made to win against the king's kinsmen.
Vajrasana
The diamond throne platform at Bodh Gaya, the site of the Buddha's enlightenment.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Vajrayana
The Buddhism that used the energy of desire itself as the path.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 12b: North India: Harsha, Palas, Pratiharas
Vakh
A verse saying of Lal Ded, among the earliest surviving Kashmiri literature.
Varaha
The Chalukya boar taken as the royal insignia by Harihara I, and the gold coin of Vijayanagara, also called the pagoda.
Varkari and wari
A member of the Vitthal tradition of Pandharpur, and the pilgrimage on foot there for Ashadhi Ekadashi.
Varna
Literally colour: a broad social distinction in the Early Vedic age that became formal, hierarchical and linked with ritual status in the Later Vedic age.
Varna samkara
Mixture of varnas; the Dharmashastras' explanation of new jatis.
Vatapikonda
Conqueror of Vatapi; the title of Narasimhavarman I.
Vedanga
Literally the limbs of a Veda: supplementary texts on phonetics, metre, grammar, etymology, ritual and astronomy for its recitation, use and understanding.
Vedanta
The Upanishads, as the concluding part of Vedic literature; later also one of the six astika schools.
Theme 6: Buddhism, Jainism and other philosophical developments
Vedika
The outer railing of a stupa, defining the sacred space.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Vellalar
The rich peasants and dominant landowners, the fourth class, who ran the nadu in practice.
Vesara
The Deccan hybrid of Nagara and Dravida elements.
Theme M4: South India before the Sultanate: the last Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and KakatiyasTheme 12a: Understanding early medieval India
Vihara
A Buddhist monastery, a residential block of cells for monks arranged around a central courtyard.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and declineTheme M3: The second Turkish invasion and the Rajput kingdoms
Vijigishu
The would be conqueror, from whose standpoint the Arthashastra argues.
Vikrama Samvat
The era beginning in 58 BCE, widely used in northern India.
Vinaya Pitaka
The pitaka of monastic rules: the Suttavibhanga, the Khandhaka and the Parivara.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Vindhyakas
The Puranas' name for the Vakatakas.
Theme 11: Contemporary powers: Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas, early Pallavas
Viradabhisheka
Rajadhiraja I's coronation bath, with defeated kings fanning him.
Vrata kshatriya
A Kshatriya fallen from status through neglect of proper dharmic conduct; some Brahmanical texts so classed foreign rulers.
Theme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Wahdat ul shuhud
Unity of witness: the unity is in the mystic's perception, and creator and creation remain distinct; Sirhindi and the Naqshbandis.
Wahdat ul wujud
Unity of being: only one Being exists and the world is its manifestation; Ibn Arabi, the Chishtis and the popular tradition.
Waqai navis
An official historian appointed by the sultan or emperor to write the history of his court.
Waqf
A religious endowment of land, buildings or funds in perpetuity, which kept mosques, madrasas and Sufi hospices; managed by the Diwan i Risalat.
Watan
A jagir given to a zamindar or raja in his own hereditary dominion, hereditary and non transferable.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Wet drapery
The transparent clinging robe of Gupta sculpture, revealing the body without ornament.
Yajamana
The sacrificer, the one on whose behalf a sacrifice was performed; the handout writes jajmana.
Yali
The rearing mythical beast that tops the composite pillars of Vijayanagara temples.
Yashti
The central mast of a stupa, the axis of the world.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Yavana
The word for the Greeks, later used for other foreigners too.
Theme 8b: The northwestern invasions: Indo Greeks, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kushanas and the Western SatrapsTheme 8a: Post Mauryan north India: Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Yavanajataka
Astrological charts, or horoscopes, from the time and place of one's birth, translated from Greek into Sanskrit by Yavaneshvara.
Yavanapriya
Black pepper, dear to the Yavanas, the most valuable export to Rome.
Yogacara
The consciousness only philosophy of Asanga and Vasubandhu, also Vijnanavada.
Theme 9: Buddhism and Jainism: later development and decline
Yuezhi
A Central Asian people of five clans, one of them the Kushanas, displaced from northwest China by the Xiongnu.
Zabti
Akbar's system of revenue by measurement and cash rates, also called bandobast, built on Sher Shah's.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Zamindar
A holder of hereditary rights over the produce of the land, with a share of about 10 to 25 per cent, but not its owner.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Zanjir i adl
Jahangir's chain of justice, from the Shah Burj of Agra fort to the Yamuna bank, for any petitioner to pull.
Zat
The personal rank and pay of a mansabdar, which alone decided his place in the hierarchy.
Theme M8b: The Mughal empire: the state, economy and culture
Zikr
Remembrance, the repeated invocation of the divine name: jahri aloud, khafi silent.
Zil i Ilahi
Shadow of God: Balban's theory of the sultan as God's representative on earth, drawn from Persian political thought.